The Death of Democracy Starts in the Classroom Op-Ed opinion

 The Death of Democracy Starts in the Classroom

25 Years of Mismanagement, Lies, Fraud, and Waste in American Public Education Op-Ed opinion

By Sean David Taylor, M.Ed. | Reading Sage

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I am a dyslexic reading teacher. I spent six years in special education programs that focused on "curing" my learning disability with undertrained teachers while completely ignoring my creative capabilities, my shame, and my raw hunger to learn. I eventually taught myself to read using the same method as learning Chinese — whole-word recognition, pattern, context, repetition. Sheer stubbornness. That experience did not just shape how I teach. It shaped how I see every broken system that promises children something it has no intention of delivering.

And right now, American public education is that broken system.

Let me be plain with you: we are not in an education crisis. We are in a democracy crisis, and the classroom is Ground Zero.

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Arizona: The Laboratory Rat for Every Bad Idea in Education

Arizona has always had a special, if dubious, distinction in the history of American schooling. We were among the first states to embrace charter schools, sold to parents as innovation and freedom. For some families — particularly those in under-resourced communities — charters offered a genuine lifeline. But the promise curdled quickly into a gold rush, and the prospectors were not teachers or children. They were investors, politicians, and ideologues who understood that public education represents roughly $800 billion annually in the United States. That is not a system. That is a market. And markets, as we have learned repeatedly, do not educate children. They monetize them.

Now Arizona has become the laboratory rat for the most audacious privatization scheme yet: the universal Empowerment Scholarship Account program, or ESA vouchers.

In 2022, then-Governor Doug Ducey signed the expansion of ESAs to every Arizona family, regardless of income or need. The program now serves over 100,000 students at a projected cost approaching $1 billion out of the Arizona General Fund for the current school year. According to reporting by 12News and data obtained from the Arizona Department of Education, approximately 20% of ESA participants — at least 18,000 account holders — used voucher funds on banned purchases. That is roughly $10.3 million in taxpayer dollars spent on items including condoms, lingerie, diamond rings, gaming laptops, big-screen televisions, and parents literally paying themselves. One affluent Gilbert family attempted to use ESA funds for a $16,170 cello.

A RAND Corporation study found that the majority of students using ESAs in 2025 came from affluent backgrounds and were already enrolled in private school. The Grand Canyon Institute concluded that the program "primarily ends up funding students who would not otherwise receive general fund support." Meanwhile, the Amphitheater School District — my district, in Tucson — voted to close four schools to save approximately $5 million, while more than $14 million in potential district funds were redirected toward ESA vouchers within that same boundary. Tucson Unified lost $37 million in potential funding in 2024 alone.

This is not school choice. This is the deliberate dismantling of public education by people who never believed in it to begin with.

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Tom Horne and the Art of Explaining It Away

When investigators and journalists pressed Arizona Schools Superintendent Tom Horne about the rampant misuse, his office's response was, essentially: calm down. Horne has repeatedly insisted that fraud accounts for less than 1% of total ESA spending, a figure the Arizona Attorney General's Solicitor General's Office directly contested — noting that nearly 20% of transactions in the program's Marketplace involved unallowable purchases. His spokesman acknowledged the banned purchases but assured us the department has a "collection and recovery process."

Translation: we'll try to get some of it back. Maybe.

But here is the deeper scandal. Horne's ideological commitment to vouchers — and that of the Republican supermajority in the Arizona Legislature, which has repeatedly killed every Democratic attempt at oversight reform — means the accountability mechanisms are not just weak. They are intentionally weak. As one Florida Republican school choice advocate put it with refreshing candor: "Sometimes politics gets in the way. There's a feeling among some Republicans that if we start to fix it, that's an admission that there may be something wrong with it."

Admitting something is wrong with it? That billion dollars is not an abstraction. It is music teachers and librarians and school counselors. It is buses that run on time. It is a principal who knows your child's name. We have traded all of that for someone's $16,000 cello.

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The Real Crime: What We Did to Teachers

But let me tell you something that the ESA scandal, as breathtaking as it is, does not fully capture. Because the fiscal looting is only the visible wound. The deeper injury — the one that will take a generation to heal — is what twenty-five years of the testing-and-accountability movement has done to teachers.

Since the Nation at Risk report in 1983, and at full warp speed after No Child Left Behind in 2001, American education has operated on a single animating assumption: teachers cannot be trusted.

We responded by constructing an apparatus of surveillance and compliance so elaborate it would make a Soviet commissar envious. We graded and ranked schools. We tied teacher evaluations to test scores. We imposed scripted curriculum and pacing guides so rigid that a gifted teacher who detoured to follow a student's curiosity — the most powerful learning moment that exists — was written up for "going off script." We introduced new programs every two years, each one promising the moon, none of them delivering, and nobody ever stopping to ask why we spent all that money for a curriculum that doesn't work.

It doesn't work because we have never asked the right question. We asked: How do we measure teachers? We should have asked: How do we support them?

We stripped teacher autonomy. We stripped teacher trust. We stripped teacher respect. And then we stood around bewildered, asking why nobody wants to become a teacher anymore, why veteran educators are leaving the profession in droves, why union membership has collapsed among people who once would have marched under any banner that promised to fight for them.

I paid union dues for years. I watched the union mostly protect the status quo, mostly avoid the hard confrontations, mostly issue statements while the profession I loved was being systematically devalued. The unions failed teachers by failing to name the real enemy clearly: not low test scores, not lazy students, not underfunded schools — though all of those are real — but the industrialization of childhood itself. The reduction of a human being at her most formative and vulnerable moment into a data point. Into a product. Into a profit center.

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Finland Did Not Reform. Finland Restored.

I want to tell you about Finland. Not as a fairy tale, not as a fantasy, but as a decision. A decision a society made about what it values.

In the 1970s, Finland's education system was unremarkable by international standards. Then, over the following decades, they made a series of deliberate choices. They did not call it reform. They called it restoration — a return to the fundamental truth that teaching is a learned art practiced by trusted professionals, not a compliance exercise performed by monitored employees.

Finnish teachers are required to hold master's degrees — but not masters in educational administration or policy. Masters in solving problems. Their preparation is rigorous, selective, and deeply respected. Only about one in ten applicants is admitted to teacher education programs. The profession attracts the best young minds in the country, not because it pays the most, but because it is honored.

There are no national standardized tests for students in basic education in Finland. None. Teachers assess their own students, using their professional judgment, within a broad national framework that trusts them to understand their classrooms better than any distant bureaucrat. There are no school inspectors threatening to shutter buildings. There is no test-and-punish. As education scholar Pasi Sahlberg documented, Finland runs on "trust-based responsibility" rather than "test-based accountability."

When I traveled to Sweden in 1998 to begin a master's program in multicultural education at the University of Uppsala, I was studying a related and urgent problem: how Sweden could best acculturate immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East into Swedish society. The question was not merely educational. It was societal — workforce integration, community belonging, cultural dignity, religious accommodation. It required a whole-systems approach. I never finished that degree. Twenty-seven years later, Sweden is paying a catastrophic price for not finishing that work. The failure to acculturate, to build genuine belonging and civic identity, has produced a fracturing society where parts of the immigrant community have become economically and socially isolated — and some have become a criminal element. Sweden is struggling now with the consequences of what was left undone.

Education is not just a school problem. It is a society problem. And if we treat it only as a product problem — something to be packaged, sold, ranked, graded, and defunded — we will reap what we have sown.

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The Micro-School Mirage

I understand why parents are fleeing. I do. When a school is a test-prep factory. When a child who learns differently is told, implicitly or explicitly, that there is no room for her here. When the one teacher who lit a fire in your son gets burned out by year four and leaves. I understand the desperation.

But here is what the ESA escape hatch does not tell you: most parents are not trained educators. They are not curriculum designers. They are not literacy specialists. Some families — the ones who do their homework, who build intentional learning environments, who treat it with the seriousness it deserves — will thrive. Their children will be exceptional.

Most will not.

Most families, facing the daily demands of work and life, without pedagogical training, without diagnostic tools to identify learning differences, without the structured community that school provides — will slowly lose ground. Some children will fall behind in reading. Some will never learn to write with precision. Some will grow up unable to critically analyze a claim, evaluate evidence, or solve a problem they have not seen before.

And that — that slow, quiet, invisible catastrophe — is how a democracy dies. Not with a bang. With a generation that cannot read a ballot measure, cannot parse a political argument, cannot tell a fact from a fabrication.

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What We Have To Do

The problem is not too complex to solve. We keep saying it is. We keep pointing fingers at poverty, at parents, at phones, at anything that lets us off the hook. The problem is solvable. Finland solved it. It requires only that we do the things we already know work and stop doing the things we know do not.

We need to decide, as a society, that teachers are professionals. That means competitive compensation. That means master's-level preparation focused on research and problem-solving in real classrooms. That means genuine autonomy — the freedom to follow a student's curiosity off the pacing guide and down the path that leads to real learning. That means evaluation systems that support teachers, not terrify them.

We need to stop grading and ranking schools as though they are consumer products. We need to stop the two-year curriculum churn, the endless new programs that promise transformation and deliver nothing but new consultant contracts. We need to apply real design thinking — the kind that starts with who are the people in this room and what do they actually need — rather than the kind that starts with how do we hit this quarterly metric.

We need accountability in the ESA program that is not a punchline. A billion dollars of public money, with no income caps, no standardized testing requirements for recipients, no independent accreditation for private schools accepting those funds, and automatic approval for any purchase under $2,000 — that is not a school choice program. That is a cash machine pointed at the public treasury.

And we need to tell the truth about what the last twenty-five years have produced: a teaching profession hollowed out by distrust, a public school system starved of resources while absorbing every social failure we refuse to address elsewhere, and a generation of children taught, above all else, how to fill in bubbles on a form.

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A Final Word

I am a dyslexic reading teacher. I was told by more than one professional that I would never read or write. The written word was, as I have said before, a collection of cuneiform squiggles swimming on a page.

I learned anyway. Not because a system trusted me — it did not — but because somewhere along the way a teacher looked at me as though I was worth the trouble. As though what was locked inside me mattered more than what the test said I could not do.

Every child deserves that teacher. Every teacher deserves the conditions to be that person.

We are not building those conditions. We are burning them down, then selling tickets to watch the fire and calling it freedom.

We need to do better. Our democracy — what remains of it — is counting on us.

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Sean David Taylor, M.Ed., is a veteran retired classroom teacher from the Amphitheater Public Schools district in Tucson, Arizona, the creator of Reading Boot Camp, and the author of the Reading Sage blog. He has taught in international settings including Sweden and has spent over two decades developing literacy interventions for struggling and Title I readers.

HOMESCHOOL ELA LITERACY ASSESSMENT INVENTORY

HOMESCHOOL ELA LITERACY

ASSESSMENT INVENTORY

PRESCHOOL -8TH GRADE

A Complete Criterion-Referenced Assessment System for Language Arts

 

Spanning Ages 3 Through Grade 8 TEST BOOKLET 

Pre-Assessment (Form A) and Post-Assessment (Form B) Included

 

FIVE DOMAINS ASSESSED:

Phonemic Awareness  •  Phonics (44 Phonemes)  •  Reading Fluency

Vocabulary (Tier 2 & Tier 3)  •  Reading & Listening Comprehension

 

Based on the Science of Reading Research

National Reading Panel (2000) • Hasbrouck & Tindal (2017) • Beck, McKeown & Kucan (2013)

 WELCOME TO THE HOMESCHOOL LITERACY ASSESSMENT INVENTORY (HLAI)

The HLAI is a comprehensive, criterion-referenced literacy assessment system designed specifically for homeschool families and teachers. It is grounded in the Science of Reading — the accumulated body of research from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and linguistics that describes how children learn to read.

 

This inventory is modeled after the structure and spirit of the Brigance Inventory of Basic Skills, providing clear, scripted administration instructions so that ANY caring adult — not just a trained evaluator — can accurately assess a child's reading skills, set meaningful goals, and track growth over time.

 

What This Assessment Measures

The HLAI assesses the five domains identified by the National Reading Panel as essential to reading development:

•       PHONEMIC AWARENESS — The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words, before and separate from print.

•       PHONICS — Knowledge of the relationships between the 44 phonemes of English and their written representations (graphemes), including letter naming, sound production, decoding, and encoding.

•       READING FLUENCY — The ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with appropriate expression (prosody). Includes oral reading rate norms based on Hasbrouck & Tindal (2017).

•       VOCABULARY — Both Tier 2 (high-frequency academic words used across disciplines) and Tier 3 (domain-specific academic terms), as described by Beck, McKeown & Kucan (2013), as well as listening vocabulary.

•       READING & LISTENING COMPREHENSION — The ability to understand, interpret, and respond to text heard or read independently, including literal, inferential, and applied comprehension.

 

Two Forms: Pre-Assessment (Form A) and Post-Assessment (Form B)

Every subtest in this inventory comes in two parallel forms:

•       FORM A (Pre-Assessment): Administer at the BEGINNING of a learning period (start of school year, before a new unit, at initial evaluation).

•       FORM B (Post-Assessment): Administer at the END of a learning period (end of term, after instruction, for annual evaluation) to measure growth.

Both forms are designed to measure the same skills at the same difficulty level, allowing for valid pre/post comparisons.

 

How to Use This Inventory

1.     READ the introduction for each subtest before administering it. Study the ADMINISTRATOR NOTES box carefully.

2.     GATHER materials listed. Most subtests require only this manual, a pencil, and the Student Response Pages (which you may photocopy).

3.     FIND a quiet space. Administer one-on-one. Minimize distractions.

4.     READ the scripted directions EXACTLY AS WRITTEN. The SAY: prompts are in bold boxes.

5.     RECORD responses on the Student Score Sheet at the end of each subtest section.

6.     CONSULT the Scoring Guide and Mastery Criteria to interpret results.

7.     USE the Goal-Setting Guide (Appendix A) to write instructional goals and objectives.

8.     TRACK progress using the Learning Continuum Chart (Appendix B).

 

Important Notes for Administrators

⚠️  ADMINISTRATOR GUIDELINES

 

•       You do NOT need to be a certified teacher to administer this inventory. The scripted directions guide you through each subtest.

•       Do NOT teach during the assessment. If a child struggles, note it and move on. The inventory is diagnostic, not instructional.

•       Discontinue a subtest if the child scores 0/5 on the first five items. Record a score of 0 and note 'discontinued.'

•       Basal Rule: If a child answers 5 consecutive items correctly at the beginning of a subtest, you may assume mastery of all easier items and mark them correct.

•       Ceiling Rule: If a child answers 5 consecutive items incorrectly, stop that subtest and record the last correct item as the ceiling.

•       Always praise effort, not correctness. Say 'Thank you!' or 'You're working hard!' regardless of the answer.

•       Assessment sessions for young children (ages 3–5) should not exceed 20–30 minutes total. Break across multiple sittings if needed.

•       For children ages 6+, complete sections may be administered in 45–60 minute sessions.

 

Understanding the Scoring

Score	Mastery Level	Instructional Implication
90–100%	MASTERY	Skill is established. Enrich and extend.
75–89%	INSTRUCTIONAL	Skill is emerging. Provide guided practice with support.
Below 75%	FRUSTRATIONAL	Skill is not yet developed. Reteach with explicit instruction.

 

Age and Grade Level Guide

Level	Approximate Age	Recommended Subtests
Pre-K / Level 1	Ages 3–4	A1–A4 (Phonological Awareness), B1 (Letter Names)
Kindergarten / Level 2	Age 5	A1–A8, B1–B6 (Phonics basics), C1 (Fluency intro)
Grade 1 / Level 3	Age 6	All A, B1–B10, C1–C2, D1–D2, E1–E2
Grade 2 / Level 4	Age 7	A9–A10, B7–B14, C2–C3, D1–D3, E1–E3
Grades 3–4 / Level 5	Ages 8–9	B12–B18, C3–C4, D3–D5, E3–E5
Grades 5–6 / Level 6	Ages 10–11	B15–B18, C4–C5, D5–D7, E4–E6
Grades 7–8 / Level 7	Ages 12–13	C5, D7–D9, E6–E8

 

STUDENT PROFILE & SCORE SUMMARY SHEET

Photocopy this page for each assessment administration.

 

STUDENT INFORMATION

 

Field	Form A (Pre-Assessment)	Form B (Post-Assessment)

 

Fields to record: Student Name, Date of Birth, Assessment Date, Administrator Name, Grade/Level, Age, Notes

 

DOMAIN SCORE SUMMARY

 

Domain	Form A Raw Score	Form A %	Form B Raw Score	Form B %
A. Phonemic Awareness	__ / 60		__ / 60
B. Phonics & Letter Knowledge	__ / 100		__ / 100
C. Reading Fluency	__ WCPM		__ WCPM
D. Vocabulary (T2 & T3)	__ / 60		__ / 60
E. Comprehension	__ / 50		__ / 50
TOTAL (A+B+D+E)	__ / 270		__ / 270

 

OVERALL GROWTH NOTES

 

Area of Strength	Area for Growth

 

GOALS SET (see Goal-Setting Guide, Appendix A)

 

#	Goal/Objective	Target Date	Met?

 

DOMAIN A: PHONEMIC AWARENESS

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Research from the National Reading Panel (2000) demonstrates that phonemic awareness is one of the strongest predictors of later reading success. It is an ORAL skill — no print is involved. Phonemic awareness encompasses a hierarchy of skills from simpler (rhyme recognition) to more complex (phoneme manipulation).

The HLAI assesses phonemic awareness across six levels of the hierarchy: rhyme awareness, alliteration/initial sound awareness, phoneme isolation, phoneme blending, phoneme segmentation, and phoneme manipulation (deletion and substitution). Assessment begins at age 3 and progresses through grade 2.

 

PHONEMIC AWARENESS SKILL HIERARCHY

Level	Skill	Typical Age/Grade	HLAI Subtest
1	Rhyme Recognition	Age 3–4 / Pre-K	A-1
2	Rhyme Production	Age 4–5 / Pre-K	A-2
3	Alliteration / Initial Sound	Age 4–5 / K	A-3
4	Phoneme Isolation	Age 5–6 / K	A-4
5	Phoneme Blending	Age 5–6 / K–Gr.1	A-5
6	Phoneme Segmentation	Age 6–7 / Gr.1	A-6
7	Phoneme Deletion	Age 6–7 / Gr.1	A-7
8	Phoneme Substitution	Age 7–8 / Gr.2	A-8

 

 

SUBTEST A-1: RHYME RECOGNITION

FORM A (Pre-Assessment) and FORM B (Post-Assessment)

 

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can identify whether two words rhyme. This is the foundational level of phonemic awareness, typically emerging at age 3.

Materials Needed

•       This manual (administrator reads aloud)

•       Student Score Sheet A-1

Administration Time

Approximately 5 minutes

 

DO: Sit across from or beside the student at a table. Have the Score Sheet ready.

SAY: 'We are going to play a word game! I will say two words, and you tell me if they RHYME — if they sound the same at the end. Listen: CAT and HAT — those rhyme! CAT and DOG — those do NOT rhyme. Let's try some together!'

SAY: 'Do these words rhyme? Just say YES or NO.' (Pause 3 seconds after each pair.)

NOTE: Do NOT repeat items. If the child does not respond after 5 seconds, mark as incorrect and continue.

 

FORM A — Rhyme Recognition Items

#	Word Pair (Read Aloud)	Correct Answer	Student Response	Score (1/0)
1	BIG — PIG	YES (rhymes)
2	SUN — RUN	YES (rhymes)
3	CAT — BALL	NO (no rhyme)
4	TREE — BEE	YES (rhymes)
5	FISH — DISH	YES (rhymes)
6	BOOK — BIKE	NO (no rhyme)
7	CAKE — LAKE	YES (rhymes)
8	HOP — MAP	NO (no rhyme)
9	RAIN — TRAIN	YES (rhymes)
10	FOX — CAT	NO (no rhyme)
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 10

 

FORM B — Rhyme Recognition Items

#	Word Pair (Read Aloud)	Correct Answer	Student Response	Score (1/0)
1	NIGHT — LIGHT	YES (rhymes)
2	FARM — BARN	NO (no rhyme)
3	SING — RING	YES (rhymes)
4	BLUE — GLUE	YES (rhymes)
5	HAND — LAND	YES (rhymes)
6	BEAR — MOON	NO (no rhyme)
7	SNOW — FLOW	YES (rhymes)
8	DOG — FROG	YES (rhymes)
9	JUMP — BELL	NO (no rhyme)
10	CHAIR — STAIR	YES (rhymes)
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery. Below 8 = Instructional focus needed.

 

 

SUBTEST A-2: RHYME PRODUCTION

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can GENERATE a rhyming word. This requires more active phoneme manipulation than recognition.

 

SAY: 'Now I want you to MAKE a rhyme! I will say a word, and you say a word that rhymes with it. It can be a silly made-up word — that's okay! What rhymes with CAT?' (Accept: bat, hat, mat, rat, sat, pat — or any phonetically plausible response.)

SAY: 'Tell me a word that rhymes with...'

NOTE: Accept nonsense words that rhyme (e.g., 'zat' rhymes with 'cat'). Do not accept words that don't rhyme even if the child insists.

 

FORM A — Rhyme Production Items

#	Target Word	Sample Correct Responses	Student Response	Score
1	HOP	top, mop, pop, cop, zop…
2	CAKE	make, lake, rake, bake, fake…
3	FISH	dish, wish, swish, shish…
4	TRAIN	rain, main, chain, pain, plain…
5	BALL	call, fall, hall, tall, wall, mall…
6	NIGHT	light, right, bright, fight, kite…
7	SNACK	back, black, crack, pack, track…
8	QUEEN	green, mean, clean, bean, seen…
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 8

 

FORM B — Rhyme Production Items

#	Target Word	Sample Correct Responses	Student Response	Score
1	JUMP	bump, dump, hump, pump, stump…
2	BLUE	clue, glue, shoe, stew, true, zoo…
3	SAND	band, hand, land, stand, grand…
4	TREE	bee, free, key, knee, see, three…
5	CLOCK	block, dock, knock, lock, rock, sock…
6	SMILE	mile, pile, style, tile, while, file…
7	BRIGHT	bite, flight, might, night, right, write…
8	FLOWER	power, shower, tower, bower…
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 6/8 (75%) = Mastery.

 

 

SUBTEST A-3: INITIAL SOUND IDENTIFICATION (ALLITERATION)

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can identify the beginning sound of a spoken word. This is a precursor to phoneme isolation.

 

SAY: 'Let's listen to the BEGINNING of words. What sound does MOON start with? /m/! The beginning sound in MOON is /m/. Now you try!'

SAY: 'What sound does _____ start with?' (Say each word clearly. Wait 5 seconds for response.)

NOTE: Accept the phoneme sound, not the letter name. '/b/' is correct; 'bee' is not. Model: '/m/ like mmm...' If child says the letter name, say 'Good! What SOUND does that letter make?' and accept the phoneme.

 

FORM A — Initial Sound Identification

#	Word	Initial Phoneme	Student Response	Score
1	BALL	/b/
2	FISH	/f/
3	MOON	/m/
4	SUN	/s/
5	DOG	/d/
6	TREE	/t/
7	JUMP	/dʒ/ (j-sound)
8	RAIN	/r/
9	CHIP	/tʃ/ (ch-sound)
10	SHIP	/ʃ/ (sh-sound)
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 10

 

FORM B — Initial Sound Identification

#	Word	Initial Phoneme	Student Response	Score
1	CAT	/k/
2	LIGHT	/l/
3	PENCIL	/p/
4	NEST	/n/
5	GRASS	/g/
6	VINE	/v/
7	WHALE	/w/
8	THINK	/θ/ (th-sound)
9	YELLOW	/j/ (y-sound)
10	ZEBRA	/z/
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

 

SUBTEST A-4: PHONEME ISOLATION (INITIAL, MEDIAL, FINAL)

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to isolate the FIRST, MIDDLE, and LAST phoneme in a spoken word.

 

SAY: 'Now we are going to find sounds INSIDE words. I will ask you for the first sound, the middle sound, or the last sound. Listen: What is the FIRST sound in SIT? /s/! What is the LAST sound in SIT? /t/! What is the MIDDLE sound in SIT? /ɪ/ (ih)! Let's try some!'

DO: Read the position word in CAPITALS clearly. Wait up to 5 seconds for each response.

 

FORM A — Phoneme Isolation

#	Word + Position	Target Phoneme	Student Response	Score
1	MAP — FIRST sound	/m/
2	BED — LAST sound	/d/
3	HIP — MIDDLE sound	/ɪ/
4	LOG — FIRST sound	/l/
5	CUP — LAST sound	/p/
6	TEN — MIDDLE sound	/ɛ/
7	SHOP — FIRST sound	/ʃ/ (sh)
8	CHIN — LAST sound	/n/
9	FROG — MIDDLE sound	/ɒ/ (short o)
10	BEACH — LAST sound	/tʃ/ (ch)
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 10

 

FORM B — Phoneme Isolation

#	Word + Position	Target Phoneme	Student Response	Score
1	FAN — FIRST sound	/f/
2	RUG — LAST sound	/g/
3	PIG — MIDDLE sound	/ɪ/
4	JAM — FIRST sound	/dʒ/ (j)
5	DUST — LAST sound	/t/
6	NET — MIDDLE sound	/ɛ/
7	WHALE — FIRST sound	/w/
8	RUSH — LAST sound	/ʃ/ (sh)
9	BLOCK — MIDDLE sound	/ɒ/ (short o)
10	RING — LAST sound	/ŋ/ (ng)
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST A-5: PHONEME BLENDING

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can blend separately spoken phonemes into a real word. This skill is critical for decoding.

 

SAY: 'I am going to say a word in SLOW MOTION — broken into pieces. You put the sounds together to make a real word! Listen: /k/…/æ/…/t/ — What word is that? CAT! Let's try some!'

DO: Say each phoneme separately with a 0.5-second pause between sounds. Do NOT blend them yourself.

 

FORM A — Phoneme Blending (Segmented Words)

#	Segmented Phonemes (say aloud)	Target Word	Student Response	Score
1	/m/ … /æ/ … /p/	MAP
2	/s/ … /ɪ/ … /t/	SIT
3	/f/ … /l/ … /æ/ … /g/	FLAG
4	/tʃ/ … /ɛ/ … /s/ … /t/	CHEST
5	/ʃ/ … /ɪ/ … /p/	SHIP
6	/n/ … /aɪ/ … /t/	NIGHT
7	/t/ … /r/ … /æ/ … /p/	TRAP
8	/s/ … /t/ … /r/ … /ɛ/ … /tʃ/	STRETCH
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 8

 

FORM B — Phoneme Blending

#	Segmented Phonemes (say aloud)	Target Word	Student Response	Score
1	/b/ … /ɪ/ … /g/	BIG
2	/g/ … /r/ … /æ/ … /b/	GRAB
3	/s/ … /l/ … /ɛ/ … /d/	SLED
4	/θ/ … /ɪ/ … /ŋ/ … /k/	THINK
5	/k/ … /l/ … /æ/ … /p/	CLAP
6	/s/ … /p/ … /l/ … /æ/ … /ʃ/	SPLASH
7	/dʒ/ … /ʌ/ … /m/ … /p/	JUMP
8	/s/ … /k/ … /r/ … /ɪ/ … /m/	SCRIM
	TOTAL SCORE			__  / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 6/8 (75%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST A-6: PHONEME SEGMENTATION

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can break a spoken word into its individual phonemes. Segmentation is the oral counterpart of phonetic spelling and strongly predicts reading and writing success.

 

SAY: 'Now it is your turn to break words apart! I will say a word and you say each sound separately, like a robot. SUN has three sounds: /s/ /ʌ/ /n/. Try tapping your finger for each sound!'

DO: Tap on the table once for each phoneme as a model. Then present words below. Mark 1 point for each CORRECT phoneme in the correct position.

 

FORM A — Phoneme Segmentation (Mark phonemes correct)

#	Word	Segmented Phonemes	# Phonemes	Student Score	Max
1	GO	/g/ /oʊ/	2		2
2	FAN	/f/ /æ/ /n/	3		3
3	JUMP	/dʒ/ /ʌ/ /m/ /p/	4		4
4	BLOCK	/b/ /l/ /ɒ/ /k/	4		4
5	FRESH	/f/ /r/ /ɛ/ /ʃ/	4		4
6	STRAP	/s/ /t/ /r/ /æ/ /p/	5		5
	TOTAL				22

 

FORM B — Phoneme Segmentation

#	Word	Segmented Phonemes	# Phonemes	Student Score	Max
1	IT	/ɪ/ /t/	2		2
2	BED	/b/ /ɛ/ /d/	3		3
3	FROG	/f/ /r/ /ɒ/ /g/	4		4
4	CHEST	/tʃ/ /ɛ/ /s/ /t/	4		4
5	BLEND	/b/ /l/ /ɛ/ /n/ /d/	5		5
6	SPRINT	/s/ /p/ /r/ /ɪ/ /n/ /t/	6		6
	TOTAL				24

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 80% of total phonemes correct.

 

SUBTEST A-7: PHONEME DELETION

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can mentally remove a phoneme from a word and say the remaining word — a higher-order phonemic manipulation skill.

 

SAY: 'Now we are going to TAKE AWAY a sound! If I say FARM and take away /f/, what's left? ARM! Let's try: Say STOP. Now say STOP without the /s/. What do you get? TOP! Your turn.'

DO: Give ONE example before beginning. Do NOT provide corrective feedback during the test.

 

FORM A — Phoneme Deletion

#	Word	Remove Phoneme	Target Response	Student Response	Score
1	MILK	Delete /m/	ILK
2	BLAST	Delete /l/	BAST
3	SMILE	Delete /s/	MILE
4	TRAIN	Delete /r/	TAIN
5	SPIT	Delete final /t/	SPI
6	CLAP	Delete /l/	CAP
7	GREET	Delete /r/	GEET
8	BLEND	Delete /l/	BEND
	TOTAL SCORE				__  / 8

 

FORM B — Phoneme Deletion

#	Word	Remove Phoneme	Target Response	Student Response	Score
1	SNACK	Delete /s/	NACK
2	PLUM	Delete /l/	PUM
3	BRIM	Delete /r/	BIM
4	FLAT	Delete /l/	FAT
5	CRISP	Delete /r/	CISP
6	STOMP	Delete /t/	SOMP
7	SCRAM	Delete /k/	SRAM
8	CLINK	Delete /l/	CINK
	TOTAL SCORE				__  / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 6/8 (75%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST A-8: PHONEME SUBSTITUTION

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to replace one phoneme in a word with another — the highest level of phonemic awareness. Mastery indicates strong phoneme proficiency that supports both reading and spelling.

 

SAY: 'Now we are going to SWAP sounds! Say CAT. Now change the /k/ to /b/. What new word do you get? BAT! Let's try some more.'

NOTE: Accept any response that correctly reflects the phoneme substitution, even if the result is a nonsense word (e.g., changing /m/ to /z/ in 'map' correctly produces 'zap').

 

FORM A — Phoneme Substitution

#	Start Word	Change...	...To...	Target	Response	Score
1	MAP	/m/ →	/n/	NAP
2	BIG	/b/ →	/d/	DIG
3	SEAT	/s/ →	/m/	MEAT
4	HOP	/h/ →	/st/	STOP
5	FLAT	/l/ →	/r/	FRAT
6	CHIP	/tʃ/ →	/sh/	SHIP
	TOTAL					__  / 6

 

FORM B — Phoneme Substitution

#	Start Word	Change...	...To...	Target	Response	Score
1	BAT	/b/ →	/f/	FAT
2	LOG	/l/ →	/fr/	FROG
3	MICE	/aɪ/ →	/ɪ/	MIS
4	SHED	/ʃ/ →	/b/	BED
5	BRING	/r/ →	/l/	BLING
6	THRONE	/θr/ →	/gr/	GROAN
	TOTAL					__  / 6

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 5/6 (83%) = Mastery.

 

Domain A Total: __ / 62 points (sum all subtests)

 

DOMAIN B: PHONICS & LETTER KNOWLEDGE

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Phonics is the systematic study of the relationship between the 44 phonemes (sounds) of spoken English and their written representations — graphemes. The National Reading Panel (2000) found that systematic phonics instruction significantly improves children's ability to read and spell words. The HLAI Phonics domain spans from pre-reading letter awareness (age 3) through advanced multisyllabic decoding (Grade 6+).

This domain includes: uppercase and lowercase letter naming, letter-sound correspondence for all 44 phonemes, consonant blends, digraphs, vowel patterns, r-controlled vowels, diphthongs, multisyllabic word reading, and nonsense word decoding (to isolate phonics skill from sight-word memory).

 

 

SUBTEST B-1: UPPERCASE LETTER NAMING

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can name all 26 uppercase letters of the alphabet in random order.

 

DO: Print the Student Response Page B-1A or point to each letter in the grid below. Cover the alphabet line at the top of your manual.

SAY: 'Look at these letters. Tell me the NAME of each letter.' (Point to letters one at a time in the order shown.)

NOTE: Mark correct (+) or incorrect (–). Record what the student said for incorrect responses. Do NOT provide correct answers.

 

FORM A — Uppercase Letter Naming Grid

STUDENT STIMULUS — Point to each letter in order →  T  F  M  B  R  W  J  P  D  H  A  Z  Q  X  Y  C  K  N  L  G  E  S  V  U  O  I

 

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

TOTAL

T

F

M

B

R

W

J

P

D

H

A

Z

Q

X

Y

C

K

N

L

G

E

S

V

U

__ / 26

 

FORM B — Uppercase Letter Naming Grid

STUDENT STIMULUS — Point to each letter in order →  L  N  H  C  T  K  P  S  A  E  B  Y  V  I  Z  G  D  O  M  J  F  W  R  X  Q  U

 

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

TOTAL

L

N

H

C

T

K

P

S

A

E

B

Y

V

I

Z

G

D

O

M

J

F

W

R

X

__ / 26

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 26/26 = Mastery. Reteach any missed letters.

 

SUBTEST B-2: LOWERCASE LETTER NAMING

Purpose

Assesses lowercase letter naming (a, b, c...) in random order. Research shows lowercase mastery is a stronger predictor of reading than uppercase.

 

SAY: 'Now look at these SMALL letters. Tell me the NAME of each small letter.'

NOTE: Watch carefully for b/d, p/q, m/n confusions — note these specifically.

 

FORM A — Lowercase Letter Naming Grid

STUDENT STIMULUS →  t  f  m  b  r  w  j  p  d  h  a  z  q  x  y  c  k  n  l  g  e  s  v  u  o  i

 

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

Letter

+/–

TOTAL

t

f

m

b

r

w

j

p

d

h

a

z

q

x

y

c

k

n

l

g

e

s

v

u

__ / 26

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 26/26. Flag any b/d/p/q reversals for further assessment.

 

SUBTEST B-3: LETTER-SOUND CORRESPONDENCE — CONSONANTS

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can produce the correct phoneme when shown a consonant letter. This is the core alphabetic principle.

 

DO: Show the student each letter (print the grid or use flashcards). Point to each letter.

SAY: 'Tell me the SOUND this letter makes — not its name, its SOUND!'

NOTE: Accept the most common phoneme. For 'c' accept /k/; for 'g' accept /g/; for 's' accept /s/ or /z/. Record what the student says.

 

FORM A — Consonant Letter-Sound Correspondence

Letter	Target Sound	+/–	Letter	Target Sound	+/–	Letter	Target Sound	+/–	Letter	Target Sound	+/–
b	/b/		f	/f/		h	/h/		j	/dʒ/
k	/k/		l	/l/		m	/m/		n	/n/
p	/p/		r	/r/		s	/s/		t	/t/
v	/v/		w	/w/		y	/j/		z	/z/
c	/k/		d	/d/		g	/g/		q	/kw/
x	/ks/										__ / 21

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 19/21 (90%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-4: SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS

Purpose

Assesses knowledge of the 5 short vowel phonemes: /æ/ (a), /ɛ/ (e), /ɪ/ (i), /ɒ/ (o), /ʌ/ (u).

 

DO: Show each vowel letter. Say: 'Tell me the SHORT sound this vowel makes.'

NOTE: Short vowel sounds: a = /æ/ as in CAT; e = /ɛ/ as in BED; i = /ɪ/ as in SIT; o = /ɒ/ as in TOP; u = /ʌ/ as in CUP

 

FORM A — Short Vowels & CVC Word Reading

Letter	Target	+/–	CVC Word (Form A)	Student Reads	Score
a	/æ/ (cat)		bat — can — hat
e	/ɛ/ (bed)		hen — net — wet
i	/ɪ/ (sit)		bit — dig — win
o	/ɒ/ (top)		hot — mop — rob
u	/ʌ/ (cup)		bug — fun — run
	SHORT VOWEL SCORE		CVC WORD SCORE		__ / 5  /  __ / 15

 

FORM B — Short Vowels & CVC Word Reading

Letter	Target	+/–	CVC Word (Form B)	Student Reads	Score
a	/æ/ (cat)		mad — nap — sag
e	/ɛ/ (bed)		get — pet — vex
i	/ɪ/ (sit)		hit — lip — mix
o	/ɒ/ (top)		fog — lot — sob
u	/ʌ/ (cup)		bun — cut — mud
	SHORT VOWEL SCORE		CVC WORD SCORE		__ / 5  /  __ / 15

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 5/5 short vowels + 12/15 CVC words = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-5: CONSONANT DIGRAPHS

Purpose

Assesses knowledge of the 6 primary consonant digraphs: sh, ch, th (unvoiced), th (voiced), wh, ng. Digraphs are two letters representing a single phoneme.

 

SAY: 'These two letters work TOGETHER to make ONE sound. What sound do they make?'

 

FORM A — Consonant Digraph Recognition

Digraph	Target Phoneme	Example Word	+/–	Form A Word	Reads:
sh	/ʃ/	shop		shin / wish
ch	/tʃ/	chip		chop / much
th (unv.)	/θ/	think		thin / math
th (v.)	/ð/	this		that / with
wh	/w/ or /hw/	when		whip / whale
ng	/ŋ/	ring		sing / long
	TOTAL		__ / 6	WORDS	__ / 12

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 5/6 digraph sounds + 10/12 words = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-6: CONSONANT BLENDS

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to read words containing common consonant blends (two or more consonants where each sound is heard).

 

SAY: 'In these words, the letters at the beginning work together — but you can hear EACH sound. Read each word out loud.'

 

FORM A — Consonant Blend Word Reading (Initial Blends)

Blend	Form A Words	+/–	Blend	Form A Words	+/–
bl-	black / blend		br-	brown / bring
cl-	clam / clock		cr-	crab / cross
fl-	flag / flat		fr-	frog / front
gl-	glad / glue		gr-	grab / grin
pl-	plan / plug		pr-	press / prom
sl-	slam / sled		sc-	scab / scan
sm-	smack / smell		sn-	snap / snob
sp-	span / spin		st-	step / stop
sw-	swam / swim		sk-	skill / skid
tr-	trap / trim		tw-	twin / twist
	TOTAL SCORE		__ / 40

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 34/40 (85%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-7: LONG VOWEL PATTERNS

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to read common long vowel spelling patterns: silent-e (CVCe), vowel teams, and open syllables.

 

SAY: 'Read each word out loud.' Present the word list below or on a printed card.

 

FORM A — Long Vowel Pattern Word Reading

Pattern	Description	Form A Words	Score
a_e	Silent-e: long /ā/	bake / name / gave / late	__ / 4
e_e	Silent-e: long /ē/	these / scene	__ / 2
i_e	Silent-e: long /ī/	fine / like / wide / time	__ / 4
o_e	Silent-e: long /ō/	home / note / woke / code	__ / 4
u_e	Silent-e: long /ū/	cute / huge / dune	__ / 3
ai / ay	Vowel team: long /ā/	rain / mail / day / play	__ / 4
ee / ea	Vowel team: long /ē/	feet / keep / meat / read	__ / 4
oa / ow	Vowel team: long /ō/	coat / road / slow / snow	__ / 4
ue / ew	Vowel team: long /ū/	clue / true / flew / new	__ / 4
igh	Long /ī/	night / fight / light / right	__ / 4
	TOTAL SCORE		__ / 37

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 31/37 (84%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-8: R-CONTROLLED VOWELS

Purpose

Assesses reading of r-controlled vowel patterns: ar, er, ir, or, ur — called 'bossy r' patterns because the /r/ changes the vowel sound.

 

SAY: 'When the letter R comes after a vowel, it changes the vowel sound. Read these words.'

 

FORM A — R-Controlled Vowel Words

Pattern	Sound	Form A Words	Form B Words
ar	/ɑːr/ as in car	star / barn / park / hard	cart / dark / yard / far
er	/ɜːr/ as in her	fern / term / verb / herd	germ / perm / stern / clerk
ir	/ɜːr/ as in bird	girl / shirt / first / stir	dirt / firm / quirk / swirl
or	/ɔːr/ as in corn	storm / port / fort / lord	born / cork / torch / worn
ur	/ɜːr/ as in burn	turn / curl / burp / hurt	curb / fur / purr / surf
	FORM A TOTAL	__ / 20	FORM B TOTAL → __ / 20

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 17/20 (85%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-9: VOWEL DIPHTHONGS & VARIANT VOWELS

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to read diphthongs (oi/oy, ou/ow) and variant vowel patterns (oo, au/aw).

 

FORM A — Diphthong and Variant Vowel Words

Pattern	Sound	Form A Words	Score	Form B Words
oi / oy	/ɔɪ/ as in oil	coin / join / toy / boy	__ / 4	soil / foil / joy / annoy
ou / ow	/aʊ/ as in out	cloud / found / cow / down	__ / 4	shout / round / crowd / town
oo (long)	/uː/ as in moon	food / pool / room / cool	__ / 4	booth / broom / gloom / zoom
oo (short)	/ʊ/ as in book	cook / look / wood / stood	__ / 4	brook / foot / good / hood
au / aw	/ɔː/ as in saw	cause / fault / claw / draw	__ / 4	sauce / haul / lawn / yawn
	TOTAL		__ / 20

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 16/20 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-10: NONSENSE WORD DECODING

Purpose

Nonsense word decoding isolates phonics knowledge from sight-word memory. Because the student has never seen these words, successful reading proves they are applying phoneme-grapheme knowledge rather than memorization. Inspired by DIBELS NWF protocols.

 

SAY: 'These are MADE-UP words — they are not real words! I want you to use your letter sounds to read them out loud. Do your best!'

NOTE: Score phonemes correct (partial credit for each correct sound) OR score whole word correct. Mark errors above the word.

 

FORM A — Nonsense Words (CVC through CCVC)

STUDENT STIMULUS STRIP — Print and place in front of student:

 

tib   fom   dap   gule   shim   thop   bract   clund   frep   splag

 

Word	Phonemes	Target	Student	Score
tib	/t/ /ɪ/ /b/	3		__ / 3
fom	/f/ /ɒ/ /m/	3		__ / 3
dap	/d/ /æ/ /p/	3		__ / 3
gule	/g/ /juː/ /l/	3		__ / 3
shim	/ʃ/ /ɪ/ /m/	3		__ / 3
thop	/θ/ /ɒ/ /p/	3		__ / 3
bract	/b/ /r/ /æ/ /k/ /t/	5		__ / 5
clund	/k/ /l/ /ʌ/ /n/ /d/	5		__ / 5
frep	/f/ /r/ /ɛ/ /p/	4		__ / 4
splag	/s/ /p/ /l/ /æ/ /g/	5		__ / 5
	TOTAL PHONEMES	37		__ / 37

 

FORM B — Nonsense Words

STUDENT STIMULUS — Print and place in front of student:

 

meb   vot   hup   nake   chig   whop   bleft   strum   crep   splond

 

Word	Phonemes	Target	Student	Score
meb	/m/ /ɛ/ /b/	3		__ / 3
vot	/v/ /ɒ/ /t/	3		__ / 3
hup	/h/ /ʌ/ /p/	3		__ / 3
nake	/n/ /eɪ/ /k/	3		__ / 3
chig	/tʃ/ /ɪ/ /g/	3		__ / 3
whop	/w/ /ɒ/ /p/	3		__ / 3
bleft	/b/ /l/ /ɛ/ /f/ /t/	5		__ / 5
strum	/s/ /t/ /r/ /ʌ/ /m/	5		__ / 5
crep	/k/ /r/ /ɛ/ /p/	4		__ / 4
splond	/s/ /p/ /l/ /ɒ/ /n/ /d/	6		__ / 6
	TOTAL PHONEMES	38		__ / 38

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 85% of total phonemes correct = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST B-11: SIGHT WORD READING (High-Frequency Words)

Purpose

Assesses automatic recognition of high-frequency words. Includes Dolch and Fry word lists organized by grade level. Sight words include both irregular (non-decodable) and decodable high-frequency words.

 

DO: Present words on a printed card or printed sheet. Point to each word.

SAY: 'Read each word as fast as you can. If you don't know it, just say 'pass' and we'll move on.'

NOTE: Mark correct (+) if read within 3 seconds without sounding out. Mark 'DC' if decoded (sounded out successfully — still credit). Mark (–) if incorrect or no response.

 

Pre-K / Kindergarten Sight Words — Level 1 (Dolch Pre-Primer)

FORM A STIMULUS WORDS:

 

a  and  the  I  is  it  of  to  in  you  he  was  for  that  on  are  at  be  this  have  from  or  one  had  by  but  not  with  as  all  were  we  when  your  can  said  there  use  an  each  which  she  do  how  their  if  will  up  other  about

 

Level	Total Words	Form A Score	Form B Score	Mastery (90%)
Level 1: Pre-Primer (Dolch 50)	50	__ / 50	__ / 50	45+
Level 2: Primer (Dolch 40)	40	__ / 40	__ / 40	36+
Level 3: Grade 1 (Dolch 41)	41	__ / 41	__ / 41	37+
Level 4: Grade 2 (Dolch 46)	46	__ / 46	__ / 46	41+
Level 5: Grade 3 (Dolch 41)	41	__ / 41	__ / 41	37+
Level 6: Fry 300–500 Words	50	__ / 50	__ / 50	45+

 

Note: Administer only the level appropriate for the student's reading level. A student scoring below 90% at one level should not be assessed at the next level.

 

 

SUBTEST B-12: MULTISYLLABIC WORD READING

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to decode words of two to four syllables by applying syllabication strategies (open syllable, closed syllable, VCe, vowel team, r-controlled, final stable syllable).

 

SAY: 'These are longer words. Take your time. Use what you know about syllables to read each one.'

NOTE: Score whole-word-correct only for the Word Score. May also score phoneme-by-phoneme for diagnostic purposes.

 

FORM A — 2-Syllable Words

#	Word	Syllable Break	Pattern	+/–
1	basket	bas • ket	closed + closed
2	napkin	nap • kin	closed + closed
3	robot	ro • bot	open + closed
4	sunrise	sun • rise	closed + VCe
5	rainbow	rain • bow	vowel team + open
6	flower	flow • er	open + r-controlled
7	trumpet	trum • pet	closed + closed
8	blanket	blan • ket	closed + closed
	SCORE			__ / 8

 

FORM A — 3- and 4-Syllable Words

#	Word	Syllable Break	Pattern Type	+/–
1	adventure	ad • ven • ture	closed + closed + final-le
2	important	im • por • tant	closed + r-ctrl + closed
3	umbrella	um • brel • la	closed + closed + open
4	understand	un • der • stand	closed + r-ctrl + closed
5	celebrate	cel • e • brate	closed + open + VCe
6	complicated	com • pli • ca • ted	closed + open + open + closed
	SCORE			__ / 6

 

FORM B — 2-Syllable Words

#	Word	Syllable Break	Pattern	+/–
1	signal	sig • nal	closed + closed
2	frozen	fro • zen	open + closed
3	pretend	pre • tend	open + closed
4	cartoon	car • toon	r-ctrl + vowel team
5	mistake	mis • take	closed + VCe
6	harvest	har • vest	r-ctrl + closed
7	complete	com • plete	closed + VCe
8	window	win • dow	closed + open
	SCORE			__ / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 2-Syllable: 7/8 (87%). 3-4 Syllable: 5/6 (83%).

 

SUBTEST B-13: THE 44 PHONEMES — COMPLETE MASTERY INVENTORY

ADMINISTRATOR: This is a comprehensive reference checklist. Use it as a diagnostic tool to identify EXACTLY which of the 44 phonemes the student has mastered. Mark Form A and Form B separately.

 

THE 44 PHONEMES OF ENGLISH — Production & Recognition Checklist

Phoneme	Primary Grapheme	Example Word	Form A +/–	Form B +/–	Phoneme	Grapheme	Example
--- CONSONANTS ---					--- VOWELS ---
/p/	p	pan			/æ/ (short a)	a	cat
/b/	b	bat			/ɛ/ (short e)	e	bed
/t/	t	top			/ɪ/ (short i)	i	sit
/d/	d	dog			/ɒ/ (short o)	o	top
/k/	c, k, ck	cat/kite			/ʌ/ (short u)	u	cup
/g/	g	got			/eɪ/ (long a)	a_e,ai,ay	cake
/f/	f, ph	fun/phone			/iː/ (long e)	ee,ea,e	feet
/v/	v	van			/aɪ/ (long i)	i_e,igh,y	kite
/θ/ (unv. th)	th	thin			/oʊ/ (long o)	o_e,oa,ow	bone
/ð/ (v. th)	th	this			/juː/ (long u)	u_e,ew	cube
/s/	s, c	sun/ice			/ɑː/ (ar)	ar	car
/z/	z, s	zip/is			/ɜːr/ (er/ir/ur)	er,ir,ur	her
/ʃ/ (sh)	sh, ti, ci	ship			/ɔːr/ (or)	or	corn
/ʒ/ (zh)	si, ge	vision			/ʊ/ (short oo)	oo,u	book
/h/	h	hot			/uː/ (long oo)	oo,ue,ew	moon
/tʃ/ (ch)	ch, tch	chip			/ɔː/ (aw/au)	aw,au	saw
/dʒ/ (j)	j,g,dge	jump/gem			/ɔɪ/ (oi)	oi,oy	oil
/m/	m	man			/aʊ/ (ou/ow)	ou,ow	out
/n/	n	nut			/ə/ (schwa)	a,e,i,o	about
/ŋ/ (ng)	ng,n	sing
/l/	l	lip
/r/	r	run
/w/	w	win
/j/ (y)	y	yes
TOTAL CONSONANTS	25		__ /25	__ /25	TOTAL VOWELS	19	__ /19 | __ /19

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 40/44 phonemes recognized and produced correctly = Mastery. Circle any missed phonemes to drive instruction.

 

DOMAIN B TOTAL: _____ / 100 (sum all scored subtests, weighted)

 

DOMAIN C: READING FLUENCY

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Reading fluency is the ability to read text accurately, quickly (at an appropriate rate), and with proper expression (prosody). The National Reading Panel identified fluency as a bridge between word recognition and comprehension. Fluency is assessed using Words Correct Per Minute (WCPM) based on the Hasbrouck & Tindal (2017) oral reading fluency norms.

IMPORTANT: Fluency is assessed with ORAL READING of CONNECTED TEXT — not isolated words. The student reads aloud from a passage for exactly 1 minute. The administrator marks errors and calculates WCPM.

 

Hasbrouck-Tindal Oral Reading Fluency Norms — Target WCPM (50th Percentile)

Grade	Fall (50th %ile)	Winter (50th %ile)	Spring (50th %ile)	Fluency Drill Level
K	n/a	~20–30 WCPM	~40–60 WCPM	Level 1: Pre-Reader
1	~23 WCPM	~53 WCPM	~71–82 WCPM	Level 2: Beginning Reader
2	~72 WCPM	~89 WCPM	~100 WCPM	Level 3: Developing Reader
3	~92 WCPM	~107 WCPM	~115 WCPM	Level 4: Transitional Reader
4	~112 WCPM	~123 WCPM	~133 WCPM	Level 5: Expanding Reader
5	~127 WCPM	~140 WCPM	~150 WCPM	Level 6: Fluent Reader
6	~140 WCPM	~148 WCPM	~162 WCPM	Level 7: Advanced Reader
7–8	~145 WCPM	~155 WCPM	~165 WCPM	Level 7: Advanced Reader

 

Students scoring 10+ WCPM BELOW the 50th percentile need fluency intervention.

 

HOW TO ADMINISTER THE 1-MINUTE FLUENCY PROBE

DO: Print the passage. Place the student copy in front of the student; keep the administrator copy for marking.

SAY: 'I want you to read this passage out loud. Do your best reading. When I say 'begin,' start reading from the beginning. If you don't know a word, I'll tell it to you.'

DO: Start your timer when the student reads the first word.

DO: Follow along on your copy. Mark errors with a slash (/) through each error word.

NOTE: Count as ERRORS: Mispronunciations, substitutions, omissions, words told after 3-second pause. Do NOT count: Repetitions, self-corrections, insertions (unless they change meaning).

DO: At exactly 1 minute, say 'Stop.' Place a bracket after the last word read.

CALCULATE: WCPM = Total Words Read – Number of Errors

ACCURACY % = (WCPM ÷ Total Words Read) × 100

 

 

FLUENCY PASSAGE LEVEL 1 — Pre-K/Kindergarten (Pre-Reader)

FORM A — THE BIG RED BUS (approx. 50 words, emerging reader level)

 

The big red bus came down the road. Sam ran to get on. He sat in the back. His dog was not on the bus. The dog ran and ran. The dog got on the bus too. Sam and his dog had a good ride. They got off at the park. The park was fun. Sam and his dog played all day.

 

Metric	Form A Result	Form B Result
Total Words in Passage	50 words	52 words
Total Words Read in 1 Minute
Number of Errors
WCPM (Words Correct Per Minute)
Accuracy %
Grade-Level Target WCPM	K Spring: 40–60	K Spring: 40–60
At/Above/Below Target

 

FORM B — THE LITTLE YELLOW BOAT (approx. 52 words)

 

The little yellow boat went on the lake. Jess held the rope. Her cat sat in the boat. A big fish swam by. The cat saw the fish and jumped. The cat got wet! Jess laughed. She helped the cat get back in the boat. They went home. Jess dried the cat. The cat purred.

 

 

FLUENCY PASSAGE LEVEL 2 — Grade 1 (Beginning Reader, ~80 words)

FORM A — THE SCHOOL GARDEN (approximately 80 words)

 

Our class planted a garden at school. We dug the dirt and put in the seeds. Every day we gave the plants water and checked for bugs. After three weeks, small green plants began to grow. The teacher said we needed to be patient. We also had to pull out the weeds so the plants could get sunlight. By the end of spring, we had tomatoes and beans. We picked them and made a salad. Everyone in class got to try it. It was the best salad we ever had.

 

Metric	Form A	Form B
Total Words in Passage	80	82
Total Words Read in 1 Minute
Number of Errors
WCPM
Accuracy %
Grade 1 Target (50th %ile Spring)	71–82 WCPM	71–82 WCPM

 

FORM B — THE BIRTHDAY STORM (approximately 82 words)

 

It was Lily's birthday. She wanted to have a party outside. But in the morning, dark clouds filled the sky. By noon, rain began to fall. Lily felt sad. Then her dad had a big idea. They pushed the tables inside. Lily's friends came with umbrellas and boots. They played games inside and ate cake. Lily's dad made paper hats for everyone. By the time the cake was gone, the sun came out. Lily said it was the best birthday she ever had.

 

 

FLUENCY PASSAGE LEVEL 3 — Grade 2 (Developing Reader, ~100 words)

FORM A — THE LIGHTHOUSE KEEPER (approximately 100 words)

 

Long ago, a man named Thomas lived in a lighthouse on the rocky shore. Every evening, he climbed to the top and lit the great lamp. Ships far out at sea could see the flashing light and know where the rocks were. Thomas loved his job. On stormy nights, the waves crashed against the stone walls. The wind howled and the rain poured down. But Thomas never missed a night. He said the sailors were counting on him. One winter, a young ship was caught in a terrible fog. Thomas kept the lamp burning. The ship passed safely. The captain wrote Thomas a thank-you letter.

 

Metric	Form A	Form B
Total Words	101	103
WCPM
Accuracy %
Grade 2 Target (50th %ile Spring)	100 WCPM	100 WCPM

 

FORM B — THE WILD HORSES (approximately 103 words)

 

In the open plains of the West, wild horses still roam free. These horses live in groups called herds. Each herd has a leader, called a stallion. The stallion protects the herd from danger. When a coyote comes near, the stallion stamps his hooves and snorts loudly. The other horses run away quickly. Wild horses eat grass and drink from streams. In summer, they travel great distances to find food and water. In winter, they use their hard hooves to dig through snow to reach the grass beneath. People have admired wild horses for thousands of years. They are a symbol of freedom and strength.

 

 

FLUENCY PASSAGE LEVEL 4 — Grade 3 (Transitional Reader, ~115 words)

FORM A — THE INVENTION OF SLICED BREAD (approximately 115 words)

 

Most people have heard the saying 'the greatest thing since sliced bread.' But have you ever wondered where sliced bread actually came from? Before 1928, people bought loaves of bread and cut their own slices at home. Then an inventor named Otto Rohwedder built a machine that could slice an entire loaf at once. A bakery in Missouri was the first to sell machine-sliced bread. Customers loved it immediately. Within a few years, most bakeries across the country were using the new machines. The invention made breakfast faster and lunches easier to pack. It also created a need for bags to keep bread fresh. Sliced bread changed the way Americans ate — and even how they talked.

 

Metric	Form A	Form B
Total Words	116	118
WCPM
Accuracy %
Grade 3 Target (50th %ile Spring)	115 WCPM	115 WCPM

 

FORM B — THE SECRET LIFE OF TREES (approximately 118 words)

 

Scientists have discovered that trees communicate with each other in surprising ways. Beneath the forest floor, the roots of trees are connected to a web of tiny fungi. These fungi carry signals and nutrients from tree to tree. When one tree is attacked by insects, it sends a chemical warning through the network. Nearby trees respond by producing chemicals that make their leaves taste bad to insects. Some researchers call this the 'wood wide web.' Trees also help each other survive during droughts by sharing water through the fungal network. Older trees, called mother trees, often send extra nutrients to younger, smaller trees growing in the shade. The forest, it turns out, works more like a community than a collection of separate plants.

 

 

FLUENCY PASSAGE LEVEL 5 — Grades 4–5 (Expanding Reader, ~140 words)

FORM A — HARRIET TUBMAN AND THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD (approximately 140 words)

 

Harriet Tubman was born into slavery in Maryland around 1822. From childhood, she endured brutal conditions, including being struck in the head with a heavy metal weight — an injury that caused her to experience sudden blackouts for the rest of her life. In 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, following the North Star and trusting a network of abolitionists and free Black families who sheltered runaways along the Underground Railroad. Rather than remaining safe in the North, Tubman returned south thirteen times to guide enslaved people to freedom. She never lost a single passenger. Slave owners placed a bounty of forty thousand dollars on her head. During the Civil War, she served as a spy and scout for the Union Army, leading a military raid that liberated more than seven hundred enslaved people. She is one of the most courageous figures in American history.

 

Metric	Form A	Form B
Total Words	142	145
WCPM
Accuracy %
Gr. 4–5 Target (50th %ile Spring)	133–150 WCPM	133–150 WCPM

 

FORM B — THE SCIENCE OF VOLCANOES (approximately 145 words)

 

Volcanoes are one of Earth's most powerful natural forces. They form where tectonic plates — the massive slabs of rock that make up Earth's outer layer — meet, separate, or slide against each other. When pressure builds beneath Earth's crust, magma, which is molten rock mixed with gases, forces its way upward through cracks and vents. Once magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. The temperature of lava can exceed 1,100 degrees Celsius. Some eruptions are explosive, launching ash and debris miles into the sky. Others are slower, releasing rivers of lava that creep across the landscape. Volcanoes have shaped much of Earth's surface over millions of years. Islands like Hawaii were formed entirely by volcanic activity. Although dangerous, volcanoes also enrich the surrounding soil with minerals, making volcanic regions some of the most fertile farmland on the planet.

 

 

FLUENCY PASSAGE LEVEL 6–7 — Grades 6–8 (Advanced Reader, ~160+ words)

FORM A — THE PRINTING PRESS AND THE SPREAD OF IDEAS (approximately 162 words)

 

Before Johannes Gutenberg developed his printing press around 1440, books were painstakingly copied by hand, primarily by monks in European monasteries. The process was so slow and expensive that a single Bible could take a scribe years to produce. Only wealthy institutions, noblemen, and the Church could afford books. Information, consequently, was tightly controlled by those in power. Gutenberg's press changed everything. By using movable metal type and an oil-based ink, he could produce hundreds of identical pages in the time it formerly took to copy one. Within fifty years of Gutenberg's invention, European printers had produced more than twenty million books. Literacy rates began to climb as texts became affordable. New ideas in science, theology, philosophy, and politics spread rapidly across national borders. The Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and ultimately the Enlightenment were all accelerated by the printing press. Scholars argue that no single invention has had a greater impact on human civilization than the ability to mass-produce the written word.

 

Metric	Form A	Form B
Total Words	163	168
WCPM
Accuracy %
Gr. 6–8 Target (50th %ile Spring)	162–165 WCPM	162–165 WCPM

 

FORM B — CLIMATE PATTERNS AND THE WATER CYCLE (approximately 168 words)

 

Earth's water cycle is one of the most fundamental processes sustaining life on the planet. It describes the continuous movement of water between Earth's surface and atmosphere through the processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection. When the sun heats water in oceans, lakes, and rivers, that water evaporates — transforming from liquid into water vapor that rises into the atmosphere. As water vapor ascends to higher altitudes, it cools and condenses around tiny particles of dust or smoke, forming clouds. When enough water droplets gather in a cloud, gravity pulls them back to Earth as precipitation — rain, snow, sleet, or hail, depending on atmospheric conditions. This precipitation collects in rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers, eventually returning to the ocean, where the cycle begins again. The water cycle is not merely a scientific curiosity; it governs regional weather patterns, agricultural productivity, and freshwater availability across the globe. Disruptions to the cycle — whether from deforestation, urbanization, or climate change — have cascading consequences for ecosystems and human societies.

 

FLUENCY PROSODY RUBRIC

In addition to WCPM, rate the student's PROSODY (expression, phrasing, and smoothness) using the scale below:

Score	Level	Descriptor
4	Fluent	Reads primarily in larger, meaningful phrase groups. Appropriate expression throughout. Sounds like natural speech.
3	Developing Fluency	Reads primarily in three- to four-word phrase groups. Some variation in expression. Generally smooth with some breaks.
2	Beginning Fluency	Reads primarily in two-word phrases. Little or no expression. Monotone. Frequent pauses.
1	Non-Fluent	Reads mostly word-by-word. Lacks expression and appropriate phrasing. Numerous long pauses.

 

Form A Prosody Score: __ / 4          Form B Prosody Score: __ / 4

 

DOMAIN D: VOCABULARY

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Vocabulary knowledge is one of the strongest predictors of reading comprehension (Shaywitz, 2020). Beck, McKeown & Kucan (2013) describe three tiers of vocabulary:

•       TIER 1: Common, everyday words (cat, run, happy) — usually acquired through conversation; typically not explicitly taught.

•       TIER 2: High-frequency academic words used across subjects and disciplines (analyze, significant, demonstrate, sequence, infer). These appear more in written text than conversation and are the PRIORITY for vocabulary instruction.

•       TIER 3: Domain-specific, low-frequency words tied to particular content areas (metamorphosis, photosynthesis, democracy, denominator). Teach as needed within content study.

The HLAI Vocabulary Domain assesses: Listening vocabulary (receptive), Tier 2 academic word knowledge across grade bands, Tier 3 content vocabulary (ELA, science, social studies), and word relationships (synonyms, antonyms, analogies).

 

 

SUBTEST D-1: LISTENING VOCABULARY (Receptive — Ages 3–6)

Purpose

Assesses whether the student understands words they hear — receptive vocabulary. Administered orally by the examiner. No reading required.

 

SAY: 'I am going to say a word. Tell me what it means, or use it in a sentence.'

NOTE: For ages 3–5, accept any reasonable definition, gesture, or example. For ages 6+, require a definition or a sentence that demonstrates understanding.

SCORING: 1 point = definition/use is clearly correct. 0.5 points = partial understanding. 0 points = no understanding or incorrect.

 

FORM A — Listening Vocabulary (Tier 1 / Early Tier 2)

#	Word	Tier	Acceptable Responses	Score
1	WET	T1	Has water on it; not dry; like after a bath	__ /1
2	LOUD	T1	Makes a big noise; very noisy	__ /1
3	SAFE	T1	Not in danger; protected from harm	__ /1
4	STRANGE	T2	Unusual; weird; different from normal	__ /1
5	DISCOVER	T2	To find something for the first time; to learn something new	__ /1
6	SIMILAR	T2	Almost the same as something; alike in some ways	__ /1
7	ENORMOUS	T2	Very, very big; huge; gigantic	__ /1
8	INVESTIGATE	T2	To look carefully; to find out information; to study	__ /1
9	HESITATE	T2	To stop before doing something; to pause because you're unsure	__ /1
10	CONSEQUENCE	T2	Something that happens as a result of an action	__ /1
	TOTAL			__ / 10

 

FORM B — Listening Vocabulary

#	Word	Tier	Acceptable Responses	Score
1	COLD	T1	Low temperature; not warm; like winter	__ /1
2	BRAVE	T1	Not afraid; courageous; willing to face danger	__ /1
3	GENTLE	T1	Soft; careful; not rough or violent	__ /1
4	PERSIST	T2	To keep trying even when it's hard; to not give up	__ /1
5	DESCRIBE	T2	To tell what something looks, sounds, or feels like	__ /1
6	COMPARE	T2	To look at how two things are the same or different	__ /1
7	SUBSTANTIAL	T2	Large in amount; significant; of great importance	__ /1
8	ELABORATE	T2	To add more detail; to explain more fully	__ /1
9	CONTRADICT	T2	To say the opposite; to disagree with what someone said	__ /1
10	EVIDENCE	T2	Facts or information that prove something is true	__ /1
	TOTAL			__ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST D-2: TIER 2 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY — WORD KNOWLEDGE (Grades 1–4)

Purpose

Assesses knowledge of high-utility academic vocabulary words that appear frequently across school subjects. Based on the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) adapted for elementary levels.

 

SAY: 'I will read a sentence with a missing word. Choose the best word from the choices.'

DO: Read the sentence aloud. Then read the three choices. The student may respond orally.

 

FORM A — Tier 2 Academic Vocabulary (Grades 1–4)

#	Sentence + Choices	Answer	+/–
1	The explorer made a great ___ when she found a new type of bird.  A) discovery  B) disaster  C) decoration	A
2	Please ___ your answer by giving three reasons.  A) ignore  B) support  C) forget	B
3	The two paintings were ___ in size but different in color.  A) opposite  B) similar  C) alone	B
4	After the storm, scientists went to ___ how much damage had been done.  A) examine  B) escape  C) enjoy	A
5	She tried to ___ what would happen next in the story.  A) predict  B) pretend  C) prevent	A
6	The ___ of the project was to build a model of the solar system.  A) reason  B) purpose  C) problem	B
7	He made a chart to ___ the data he collected during the experiment.  A) organize  B) erase  C) copy	A
8	They had to ___ carefully before giving an answer.  A) hurry  B) consider  C) sleep	B
9	The ___ of the story was that hard work always pays off.  A) chapter  B) character  C) theme	C
10	The result was ___, meaning it had the opposite effect of what was intended.  A) effective  B) unintended  C) successful	B
	TOTAL		__ / 10

 

FORM B — Tier 2 Academic Vocabulary (Grades 1–4)

#	Sentence + Choices	Answer	+/–
1	The scientist kept detailed ___ of every experiment she conducted.  A) records  B) recipes  C) rivers	A
2	To solve the problem, we need to ___ the information we have.  A) delete  B) analyze  C) copy	B
3	The two events happened at the same time; they were ___.  A) separate  B) simultaneous  C) singular	B
4	His explanation was clear and easy to ___.  A) confuse  B) ignore  C) follow	C
5	The results ___ that eating vegetables improves health.  A) suggest  B) prevent  C) ignore	A
6	She gave an ___ answer — one that covered all the important details.  A) inaccurate  B) immediate  C) thorough	C
7	The table shows a clear ___ between exercise and energy.  A) relationship  B) reaction  C) review	A
8	The author's main ___ was that people should respect nature.  A) argument  B) adventure  C) answer	A
9	When data is spread across many values, it shows great ___.  A) variety  B) value  C) volume	A
10	The new rules will ___ every student in the school.  A) affect  B) activate  C) accuse	A
	TOTAL		__ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST D-3: TIER 2 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY — ADVANCED (Grades 5–8)

Purpose

Assesses higher-level academic vocabulary drawn from the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000). These words are essential for reading complex nonfiction and literary texts.

 

FORM A — Advanced Tier 2 Vocabulary

#	Word	Complete the Sentence (Circle best answer)	Ans.	+/–
1	INFER	From the clues in the story, we can ___ that the character is angry.  A) infer  B) inflate  C) ignore	A
2	AMBIGUOUS	His instructions were ___ — no one was sure what he meant.  A) clear  B) ambiguous  C) aggressive	B
3	DIMINISH	Over time, the noise began to ___.  A) increase  B) diminish  C) demonstrate	B
4	VALIDATE	The experiment was designed to ___ the scientist's theory.  A) reject  B) complicate  C) validate	C
5	COHERENT	A ___ essay has ideas that flow logically and connect clearly.  A) scattered  B) coherent  C) complex	B
6	EXEMPLIFY	Her behavior helps to ___ what it means to be a leader.  A) exemplify  B) explain away  C) excuse	A
7	PERSPECTIVE	Reading about historical events from multiple ___ helps us understand them better.  A) solutions  B) perspectives  C) purposes	B
8	SUBSEQUENT	The earthquake caused significant damage; the ___ fires made things even worse.  A) previous  B) subsequent  C) similar	B
9	BIAS	A newspaper article written with ___ presents facts in a one-sided way.  A) balance  B) clarity  C) bias	C
10	ELABORATE	Please ___ on your answer — give more details.  A) elaborate  B) erase  C) estimate	A
	TOTAL		__ /10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST D-4: TIER 3 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY — ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

Purpose

Assesses knowledge of ELA-specific Tier 3 terms that students encounter in language arts instruction. Essential for literary analysis and grammar.

 

FORM A — ELA Tier 3 Vocabulary

#	Term	Student Defines (or points to best match):	Correct Definition
1	protagonist	Circle one:  A) the villain  B) the main character  C) the setting	B
2	metaphor	A) comparing two unlike things using 'like' or 'as'  B) a direct comparison without 'like' or 'as'  C) a repeated beginning sound	B
3	inference	A) information stated in the text  B) a conclusion drawn from clues  C) the author's opinion	B
4	narrative	A) a poem  B) a list  C) a story that describes events	C
5	alliteration	A) rhyming words  B) repeated beginning sounds  C) words that sound like what they mean	B
6	genre	A) a type or category of literature  B) the main idea  C) the ending of a story	A
7	exposition	A) the climax  B) the introduction and background at the start  C) the turning point	B
8	theme	A) the title  B) the setting  C) the central message or life lesson of a text	C
9	point of view	A) the author's name  B) the perspective from which a story is told  C) the type of book	B
10	foreshadowing	A) hints about what will happen later  B) a flashback  C) the resolution	A
	TOTAL		__ / 10

 

FORM B — ELA Tier 3 Vocabulary

#	Term	Circle best definition:	Correct
1	antagonist	A) the main character  B) the setting  C) the character who opposes the protagonist	C
2	simile	A) a direct comparison  B) a comparison using 'like' or 'as'  C) a repeated sound	B
3	connotation	A) the dictionary meaning  B) the emotional meaning or feeling a word carries  C) a spelling rule	B
4	plot	A) the sequence of events in a story  B) the setting  C) the author's purpose	A
5	onomatopoeia	A) a comparison  B) a word that imitates the sound it represents (buzz, crash)  C) exaggeration	B
6	conflict	A) the resolution  B) the main character  C) the problem or struggle in a story	C
7	hyperbole	A) a factual statement  B) deliberate extreme exaggeration  C) a type of poem	B
8	context clues	A) dictionary entries  B) words or ideas near an unknown word that help define it  C) proper nouns	B
9	mood	A) the emotion a reader feels while reading  B) the author's tone  C) the setting	A
10	syntax	A) the meaning of words  B) the structure and arrangement of sentences  C) punctuation rules	B
	TOTAL		__ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST D-5: TIER 3 VOCABULARY — SCIENCE & SOCIAL STUDIES (Grades 3–8)

Purpose

Assesses content-area Tier 3 vocabulary in science and social studies — the language students must know to access informational text.

 

FORM A — Science Tier 3 Vocabulary

#	Term	Circle best definition:	Correct
1	photosynthesis	A) animal migration  B) process plants use to make food from sunlight  C) water cycle	B
2	hypothesis	A) a proven fact  B) a conclusion  C) a testable prediction or educated guess	C
3	ecosystem	A) a type of weather  B) all living things and their environment in an area  C) Earth's core	B
4	vertebrate	A) an animal without a backbone  B) an animal with a backbone  C) a type of plant cell	B
5	erosion	A) the growth of rocks  B) the wearing away of land by wind, water, or ice  C) volcanic eruption	B
6	chromosome	A) a type of atom  B) a part of the digestive system  C) structure in cells that carries genetic info	C
7	condensation	A) water vapor turning into liquid  B) liquid turning into gas  C) ice melting	A
8	orbit	A) the path of a planet around the sun  B) the moon's surface  C) a star's explosion	A
	TOTAL		__ / 8

 

FORM A — Social Studies Tier 3 Vocabulary

#	Term	Circle best definition:	Correct
1	democracy	A) rule by a single king  B) government by the people  C) a type of economy	B
2	immigration	A) moving within a country  B) moving to a new country to live  C) touring for vacation	B
3	latitude	A) horizontal lines measuring distance N or S of equator  B) vertical lines  C) altitude	A
4	amendment	A) a type of law  B) a punishment  C) a formal change made to a legal document	C
5	primary source	A) most important subject  B) a firsthand account from the time period  C) main textbook	B
6	tariff	A) a tax on imported goods  B) a type of government  C) a treaty between nations	A
7	constitution	A) a list of taxes  B) a type of election  C) the basic law governing a country	C
	TOTAL		__ / 7

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 6/8 science (75%) + 6/7 social studies (85%) = Mastery.

 

Domain D Total: _____ / 60 (sum scored subtests)

 

DOMAIN E: READING & LISTENING COMPREHENSION

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Reading comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading instruction — the ability to understand, interpret, and use text. The National Reading Panel (2000) identified comprehension as one of the five core reading pillars. The HLAI assesses comprehension at multiple levels following the framework described by Really Great Reading and supported by the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986):

•       LITERAL COMPREHENSION: Finding information directly stated in the text (who, what, where, when).

•       INFERENTIAL COMPREHENSION: Drawing conclusions from clues in the text (why, how, what if).

•       APPLIED/EVALUATIVE COMPREHENSION: Connecting text to prior knowledge and evaluating the author's message.

•       LISTENING COMPREHENSION: Understanding text read ALOUD — separates decoding skill from comprehension to diagnose the source of any reading difficulty.

 

 

SUBTEST E-1: LISTENING COMPREHENSION — Grades K–1 (Ages 5–7)

Purpose

Assesses comprehension when the administrator reads aloud. This tests LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION independent of decoding. If a student scores well on listening but poorly on reading comprehension, the deficit is in decoding/word recognition, not language.

 

SAY: 'I am going to read you a short story. Listen carefully — when I am done, I will ask you some questions.'

DO: Read the passage aloud clearly and naturally. Do NOT show the student the text. After reading, close the book.

SAY: 'Now let's see what you remember!'

 

FORM A — Listening Passage K–1: 'The Rabbit and the Garden'

READ ALOUD to student — Do NOT show text:

 

One sunny morning, a small rabbit named Pip hopped into Farmer Brown's garden. Pip saw rows of bright orange carrots, red tomatoes, and leafy green lettuce. He was very hungry. Just as Pip reached for a big carrot, he heard Farmer Brown's boots crunching on the path. Pip froze. His heart beat fast. Then he squeezed under the fence and ran as fast as his legs could carry him. He did not stop until he reached his burrow. Pip was safe — but still very hungry.

 

Comprehension Questions — Form A, E-1

#	Question	Type	Correct Answer	Score
1	What is the name of the rabbit in the story?	Literal	Pip
2	Where did Pip go at the beginning of the story?	Literal	Farmer Brown's garden
3	Why did Pip run away from the garden?	Literal	He heard the farmer coming / boots crunching
4	How do you think Pip felt when he heard the farmer? Why?	Inferential	Scared/frightened; because his heart beat fast and he froze
5	What do you think will happen the next time Pip is hungry?	Inferential	Accept any reasonable prediction with support
	TOTAL			__ / 5

 

FORM B — Listening Passage K–1: 'The Lost Kite'

READ ALOUD to student:

 

On a windy afternoon, Maya took her new kite to the park. The kite was red with a yellow star. She held the string tight as the kite soared high into the blue sky. Then a strong gust of wind came and — snap! — the string broke. The kite flew higher and higher until it disappeared behind a cloud. Maya sat on the bench and cried. An old man on the next bench noticed her tears. He smiled kindly and opened his bag. Inside was a bright green kite. 'Would you like to try mine?' he asked. Maya wiped her eyes and smiled back.

 

#	Question	Type	Correct Answer	Score
1	What happened to Maya's kite?	Literal	The string broke / it flew away
2	What did Maya's kite look like?	Literal	Red with a yellow star
3	Why do you think the old man offered Maya his kite?	Inferential	He saw she was sad; he wanted to help
4	How did Maya feel at the end of the story? How can you tell?	Inferential	Better/happy; she wiped her eyes and smiled
5	What is a lesson you could learn from this story?	Applied	Accept: kindness helps; things can be replaced; good things happen if...
	TOTAL			__ / 5

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 4/5 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST E-2: READING COMPREHENSION — Grade 2 (Level 3)

Purpose

Student reads a passage independently and answers comprehension questions. Assesses both literal recall and inferential thinking.

 

DO: Give the student a printed copy of the passage. Allow them to read it silently or aloud.

SAY: 'Read this passage. When you are done, I will ask you questions. You may look back at the passage.'

 

FORM A Reading Passage E-2: 'Penguins Don't Fly'

STUDENT READS THIS PASSAGE:

 

Penguins are birds, but they cannot fly. Instead of using their wings for flying, they use them like flippers to swim through the ocean. Penguins are remarkable swimmers and can reach speeds of up to 15 miles per hour underwater. Most penguins live in the cold southern regions of the world, especially Antarctica. Emperor penguins, the largest of all penguins, can stand nearly four feet tall and survive in temperatures below -40 degrees Fahrenheit. During winter, male emperor penguins keep their eggs warm by balancing them on their feet and covering them with a warm flap of skin called a brood pouch. They huddle together in groups to share warmth while the females are away at sea finding food. By the time the eggs hatch, the fathers may not have eaten for two months.

 

Comprehension Questions — Form A, E-2

#	Question	Type	Acceptable Answers	Score
1	How do penguins use their wings?	Literal	Like flippers to swim
2	What is a brood pouch?	Literal	A warm flap of skin used to cover eggs
3	How fast can penguins swim?	Literal	Up to 15 miles per hour
4	Why do male penguins huddle together in winter?	Inferential	To share body warmth / stay warm in the cold
5	What can you conclude about emperor penguins based on this passage?	Inferential	They are devoted parents; they can survive extreme conditions
6	What is the main idea of this passage?	Applied	Penguins are remarkable birds adapted for life in cold, aquatic environments
7	How is a penguin SIMILAR to and DIFFERENT from other birds?	Evaluative	Similar: has wings, is a bird. Different: cannot fly, uses wings to swim
	TOTAL			__ / 7

 

FORM B Reading Passage E-2: 'The Hummingbird's Secret'

STUDENT READS THIS PASSAGE:

 

The hummingbird is one of nature's most extraordinary creatures. These tiny birds — some no bigger than a human thumb — are the only birds in the world that can fly backwards. They beat their wings up to 80 times per second, which creates the humming sound that gives them their name. To fuel this incredible speed, hummingbirds must eat constantly. A hummingbird can visit between 1,000 and 2,000 flowers in a single day to drink nectar. Their long, thin beaks are perfectly shaped to reach deep inside flowers. As they feed, pollen sticks to their heads and gets carried to the next flower, helping plants reproduce. This makes hummingbirds important pollinators. Despite their beauty and importance, hummingbirds are incredibly territorial. They will chase away other birds — and even large insects — to protect a good food source.

 

Comprehension Questions — Form B, E-2

#	Question	Type	Acceptable Answers	Score
1	What makes hummingbirds unique compared to other birds?	Literal	Only birds that can fly backwards
2	Why are hummingbirds important to plants?	Literal	They carry pollen between flowers (pollinators)
3	How many times do hummingbirds beat their wings per second?	Literal	Up to 80 times
4	Why do hummingbirds need to eat so much?	Inferential	They use enormous energy flying so fast
5	What does 'territorial' mean in this passage?	Vocabulary in Context	Protective of their space/food; will chase others away
6	What is the main idea of this passage?	Applied	Hummingbirds are remarkable, vital birds with amazing adaptations
7	How does the hummingbird's beak help it survive?	Applied	Long/thin shape lets it reach deep inside flowers for nectar
	TOTAL			__ / 7

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 6/7 (85%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST E-3: READING COMPREHENSION — Grades 3–4 (Level 5)

Purpose

Student reads an informational passage and responds to questions requiring literal recall, inference, vocabulary in context, and text structure analysis.

 

FORM A Passage E-3: 'The Life of a Monarch Butterfly'

STUDENT READS THIS PASSAGE:

 

The monarch butterfly undergoes one of the most astonishing migrations in the animal kingdom. Each autumn, millions of monarchs travel up to 3,000 miles from Canada and the United States to the oyamel fir forests of central Mexico, where they spend the winter clustered in enormous groups on tree branches. What makes this journey particularly remarkable is that no single butterfly makes the round trip. The butterflies that travel south in autumn are not the same individuals that traveled north the previous spring. Scientists call these the 'super generation' — a generation that lives several months longer than normal monarchs. The entire migration is guided by a combination of the sun's position and an internal magnetic compass. Habitat loss and the decline of milkweed — the only plant monarch caterpillars can eat — have caused monarch populations to drop dramatically over recent decades. Conservation efforts, including citizen science programs that ask volunteers to plant milkweed and track butterfly populations, are helping to slow the decline.

 

Comprehension Questions — Form A, E-3

#	Question	Type	Answer Key	Score
1	How far do monarchs travel during migration?	Literal	Up to 3,000 miles
2	What is the 'super generation'?	Literal	A generation that lives much longer and completes the southern migration
3	What do monarch caterpillars eat?	Literal	Milkweed only
4	How do scientists think butterflies navigate?	Literal	Sun position + internal magnetic compass
5	Why is the monarch migration 'remarkable' according to the author?	Inferential	No single butterfly makes the full round trip; the 'super gen' lives longer
6	What does 'conservation' mean in the context of this passage?	Vocab in Context	Protecting/preserving monarch butterflies and their habitat
7	What are TWO causes of the decline of monarch butterflies?	Literal	Habitat loss + decline of milkweed
8	What is the author's purpose in this passage?	Applied	To inform readers about monarchs and inspire conservation action
	TOTAL			__ / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 7/8 (87%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST E-4: READING COMPREHENSION — Grades 5–6 (Level 6)

Purpose

Assesses comprehension of longer, more complex informational text with academic vocabulary and more complex inference demands.

 

FORM A Passage E-4: 'Microplastics: The Invisible Threat'

STUDENT READS THIS PASSAGE:

 

Microplastics are tiny plastic particles less than five millimeters in size — smaller than a grain of rice. They form when larger plastic items break down in the environment, or they are manufactured at that tiny size for use in products like facial scrubs, toothpaste, and synthetic fabrics. Because they are so small, they pass easily through water filtration systems and accumulate in oceans, rivers, and soil. Scientists have detected microplastics in rainwater, deep-ocean sediments, Arctic ice, the bloodstream of marine mammals, and — most recently — in human blood and lungs. Research is still ongoing, but early studies suggest that microplastic exposure may disrupt hormones, damage cells, and carry harmful chemical pollutants deep into the body. The scale of the problem is staggering: researchers estimate that by 2050, there will be more plastic in the ocean by weight than fish. Addressing microplastic pollution requires action at multiple levels — individual consumer choices, corporate responsibility in manufacturing, and international policy agreements that regulate the production and disposal of single-use plastics.

 

Comprehension Questions — Form A, E-4

#	Question	Type	Answer Key	Score
1	How are microplastics formed?	Literal	From larger plastics breaking down OR manufactured small for products
2	Where have scientists found microplastics?	Literal	Rain, ocean, Arctic ice, animal blood, human blood/lungs
3	What does 'accumulate' mean in this passage?	Vocab in Context	To build up / collect / gather over time
4	Why is the prediction about 2050 significant?	Inferential	Shows extreme severity; more plastic than fish = ecosystems at risk
5	Why does the author say addressing the problem requires 'multiple levels'?	Inferential	Because the problem is too big for any single person/entity to solve alone
6	What is the author's overall argument?	Applied	Microplastics are a serious, growing threat requiring urgent, coordinated action
7	What is one action the author implies individuals should take?	Applied	Reduce single-use plastics / make different consumer choices
8	Evaluate: Is the author persuading you, informing you, or both? Support your answer.	Evaluative	Both: provides facts (inform) and ends with call to action (persuade)
	TOTAL			__ / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 7/8 (87%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST E-5: READING COMPREHENSION — Grades 7–8 (Level 7)

Purpose

Assesses comprehension of complex argumentative and analytical text. Requires evidence-based reasoning, text structure analysis, and critical evaluation.

 

FORM A Passage E-5: 'The Paradox of Choice' (adapted)

STUDENT READS THIS PASSAGE:

 

In contemporary Western society, freedom of choice is widely regarded as one of the highest goods. We celebrate the supermarket with fifty varieties of salad dressing and the streaming service with thousands of films. Yet psychologist Barry Schwartz has argued, in his influential work 'The Paradox of Choice,' that the proliferation of options may actually be reducing — rather than enhancing — human well-being. Schwartz draws on a now-famous study in which shoppers at a gourmet grocery store were offered either six or twenty-four varieties of jam to sample. When only six jams were offered, 30% of shoppers made a purchase. When twenty-four were offered, only 3% did so. The abundance of choice, it appears, can lead to decision paralysis — an inability to choose at all. Moreover, Schwartz argues that even when we do choose from a large set, we are less satisfied with our choice, because we cannot help comparing it to all the options we rejected. He terms this the 'opportunity cost of foregone alternatives.' The implications extend beyond grocery shopping. In education, healthcare, career paths, and personal relationships, the expansion of choice has created a new and unexpected source of anxiety: the burden of infinite possibility.

 

Comprehension Questions — Form A, E-5

#	Question	Type	Answer Key	Score
1	What is Barry Schwartz's main argument?	Literal	Too many choices reduces happiness/well-being, not increases it
2	Summarize the jam study and its finding.	Literal	More jam choices = fewer purchases; less choice = more buying
3	What is 'decision paralysis'?	Vocab in Context	Being unable to decide because there are too many options
4	What does 'opportunity cost of foregone alternatives' mean?	Vocab/Inferential	The regret of not choosing the other options we gave up
5	Why does the author say the expansion of choice creates 'anxiety'?	Inferential	Infinite choices = pressure to make the perfect choice; fear of regret
6	Is the jam study sufficient evidence for Schwartz's argument? Why/why not?	Evaluative	Open-ended; strong responses note one study ≠ proof; limited scope
7	What text structure does this passage primarily use?	Text Structure	Claim + evidence; argumentative/expository
8	How might this argument apply to education?	Applied	Accept any reasonable application: too many elective choices, etc.
	TOTAL			__ / 8

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 7/8 (87%) = Mastery.

 

Domain E Total: _____ / 50 points (sum all subtests)

 

DOMAIN F: WRITING — LETTER FORMATION, SPELLING & WRITTEN EXPRESSION

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Writing and spelling are the productive counterparts of reading. The relationship between reading and writing is reciprocal: children who learn to write letters, spell words, and compose sentences reinforce their phoneme-grapheme knowledge, which in turn strengthens decoding and reading comprehension (Graham & Hebert, 2010). The HLAI Writing Domain assesses four interconnected areas:

•       LETTER FORMATION — The ability to write uppercase and lowercase letters legibly from dictation (ages 3–6).

•       INVENTED/DEVELOPMENTAL SPELLING — How the student spells words without a model, revealing their current stage of phonics and orthographic knowledge (Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000).

•       SPELLING ACCURACY — Correct spelling of words at the student's instructional level, using formal word lists aligned to phonics scope and sequence.

•       WRITTEN EXPRESSION — Sentence construction, use of complete sentences, paragraph organization, and voice.

 

Spelling Developmental Stages — Reference Guide

Use this chart to interpret invented spelling errors diagnostically.

 

Stage	Typical Age/Grade	What You See	Example
Pre-Communicative	Age 3–5	Random letters/scribbles; no sound-letter relationship	XBQTP for 'cat'
Semi-Phonetic	Age 4–6 / Pre-K	1–2 letters represent whole words; initial/final sounds	KT for 'cat'; BK for 'bike'
Phonetic	Age 5–7 / K–Gr.1	All sounds represented; may be unconventional	KAT, BIEK, RAYN
Within-Word Pattern	Age 6–9 / Gr.1–3	Correct basic patterns; errors in long vowels/patterns	TRANE for 'train'
Syllables & Affixes	Age 8–10 / Gr.3–5	Errors in compound/syllable boundaries, affixes	HOPEING for 'hoping'
Derivational Relations	Age 10+ / Gr.5+	Errors in derivational morphology	CRITISISM for 'criticism'

 

 

SUBTEST F-1: LETTER FORMATION FROM DICTATION

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can write uppercase and lowercase letters correctly when the letter name is spoken. Evaluates both letter knowledge and fine-motor letter formation.

Materials Needed

•       Blank unlined paper (for ages 3–5) or wide-ruled lined paper (ages 6+)

•       Pencil

 

DO: Give the student a blank or lined sheet. Write the student's name in the top corner.

SAY: 'I am going to say a letter name. Write that letter on your paper. Write it as neatly as you can.'

DO: Say each letter slowly and clearly. Allow 10 seconds between letters. Do NOT show a model.

FORM A Letters (dictate in this order): T, b, M, d, F, p, S, q, A, n, G, l, R, m, J, w, K, h, X, e, Z, i, V, u, O, y

FORM B Letters (dictate in this order): L, t, N, g, H, f, C, r, B, s, D, k, P, j, A, v, W, c, E, z, Y, o, Q, x, U, a

NOTE: Score each letter 1 = legible and correctly formed; 0.5 = recognizable but reversed or poorly formed; 0 = unrecognizable. Record any reversals specifically (b/d, p/q).

 

FORM A — Letter Formation Score Sheet

Letter Dictated	UC/LC	Score (0/0.5/1)	Notes (Reversals?)	Letter Dictated	UC/LC	Score	Notes
T	UC			b	LC
M	UC			d	LC
F	UC			p	LC
S	UC			q	LC
A	UC			n	LC
G	UC			l	LC
R	UC			m	LC
J	UC			w	LC
K	UC			h	LC
X	UC			e	LC
Z	UC			i	LC
V	UC			u	LC
O	UC			y	LC
	TOTAL		__ / 26		TOTAL		__ / 26

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 24/26 (92%) letters legibly formed. Any b/d/p/q reversals after age 7 = flag for follow-up.

 

Letter Formation Observation Notes

Observation Area

Form A Notes

Form B Notes

 

 

SUBTEST F-2: DEVELOPMENTAL SPELLING INVENTORY — Early (Pre-K through Grade 1)

Purpose

Administered by dictation — the administrator says a word, uses it in a sentence, and says it again. The student writes the word as best they can. Scoring uses the Developmental Spelling stage rubric. Based on Bear et al. (2020) Words Their Way spelling inventory principles.

 

SAY: 'I am going to say some words. Write each word as best you can. Some of them might be hard — just try your best. There is no grade for this.'

DO: For each word: (1) Say the word. (2) Read the sentence. (3) Say the word again. Allow 30 seconds.

NOTE: Do NOT correct spelling during the test. Do NOT spell words for the student.

 

FORM A — Early Spelling Inventory (10 words)

#	Dictated Word	Dictation Sentence	Student Writes	Stage Notes
1	fan	The fan blew cool air.
2	pet	She has a pet cat.
3	dig	He will dig a hole.
4	rob	Do not rob from others.
5	hope	I hope it will be sunny.
6	wait	Please wait for me.
7	gum	The gum stuck to the desk.
8	sled	We rode the sled down the hill.
9	stick	The dog chased the stick.
10	shine	The sun will shine today.
	STAGE IDENTIFIED:

 

FORM B — Early Spelling Inventory (10 words)

#	Dictated Word	Dictation Sentence	Student Writes	Stage Notes
1	nap	The baby took a nap.
2	bed	Go to bed early.
3	win	I want to win the race.
4	hop	The bunny will hop away.
5	cute	The puppy is very cute.
6	rain	The rain made puddles.
7	drum	He played the drum.
8	clap	Clap your hands!
9	black	The night sky was black.
10	chase	She likes to chase butterflies.
	STAGE IDENTIFIED:

 

Spelling Stage Score Sheet — Early Inventory

Feature	Possible Points	Form A Points	Form B Points	Instructional Implication
Initial Consonants	10			Pre-communicative → Semi-phonetic
Final Consonants	10			Semi-phonetic → Phonetic
Short Vowels Present	10			Early Phonetic
Short Vowels Correct	10			Phonetic stage
Blends/Digraphs	10			Phonetic → Within-Word
Long Vowel Markers	10			Within-Word Pattern
TOTAL	60	__ / 60	__ / 60

 

MASTERY CRITERION: Use stage rubric. If student is in Phonetic stage by end of Grade 1, mastery is on track.

 

SUBTEST F-3: SPELLING ACCURACY — Grade-Level Word Lists (Grades 1–6)

Purpose

Assesses spelling accuracy of grade-level words tied directly to the phonics scope and sequence in Domain B. Words are administered by dictation. Score one point per correctly spelled word.

 

SAY: 'I am going to say a word, use it in a sentence, and say it again. Spell the word correctly on your paper.'

DO: Administer ONLY the level(s) appropriate for the student. Use the basal/ceiling rules.

 

GRADE 1 SPELLING WORDS — Form A

Phonics Focus: CVC, digraphs, short vowels, basic blends

 

#	Word	Sentence	Phonics Pattern	+/–	Form B Word	+/–
1	map	Use a map to find the way.	CVC		tap
2	chin	My chin is itchy.	ch digraph		ship
3	wish	Make a birthday wish.	sh digraph		with
4	flag	The flag waved in the wind.	fl blend		frog
5	step	Watch the step.	st blend		snap
6	chop	Chop the vegetables.	ch+short o		thin
7	path	Follow the path.	th digraph		bath
8	glad	I am glad you came.	gl blend		plan
9	skin	My skin got sunburned.	sk blend		spin
10	ring	She wore a gold ring.	ng digraph		song
	GRADE 1 TOTAL			__ / 10	FORM B	__ / 10

 

GRADE 2 SPELLING WORDS — Form A

Phonics Focus: Long vowel patterns, r-controlled, vowel teams

 

#	Word	Sentence	Pattern	+/–	Form B Word	+/–
1	bake	Bake the bread for one hour.	CVCe long a		cave
2	rain	The rain fell all day.	ai vowel team		sail
3	feet	My feet hurt.	ee vowel team		tree
4	night	Good night!	igh pattern		light
5	bone	The dog found a bone.	CVCe long o		note
6	corn	I love corn on the cob.	or r-controlled		torn
7	bird	A bird sang outside.	ir r-controlled		girl
8	burn	Be careful not to burn it.	ur r-controlled		turn
9	boil	Boil the water.	oi diphthong		soil
10	cloud	A dark cloud appeared.	ou diphthong		shout
	GRADE 2 TOTAL			__ / 10	FORM B	__ / 10

 

GRADE 3 SPELLING WORDS — Form A

Phonics Focus: Multisyllabic words, inflectional endings, common prefixes/suffixes

 

#	Word	Sentence	Pattern	+/–	Form B Word	+/–
1	running	She is running the race.	-ing doubling		sitting
2	hoped	He hoped for a gift.	-ed drop e		baked
3	happily	She skipped happily.	-ily suffix		easily
4	replay	Can you replay the song?	re- prefix		reread
5	unhappy	She was unhappy.	un- prefix		unsafe
6	helpful	He is a helpful friend.	-ful suffix		careful
7	basket	Put it in the basket.	VCC pattern		carpet
8	number	Pick a number.	open syllable + r-ctrl		winter
9	mistake	I made a mistake.	mis- prefix + CVCe		unlike
10	birthday	Happy birthday!	compound		sunshine
	GRADE 3 TOTAL			__ / 10	FORM B	__ / 10

 

GRADE 4–5 SPELLING WORDS — Form A

Phonics Focus: Latin/Greek roots, affixes, complex patterns

 

#	Word	Sentence	Pattern/Root	+/–	Form B Word
1	gracious	She gave a gracious smile.	-ous suffix		famous
2	signature	Sign your signature here.	sign- root		signal
3	necessary	Sleep is necessary.	c+ss pattern		possible
4	ancient	Ancient Egypt fascinated him.	ti=/sh/ pattern		patient
5	conscience	Let your conscience guide you.	sci- pattern		science
6	privilege	It is a privilege.	unusual spelling		stomach
7	temperature	Check the temperature.	temp- root		literature
8	government	The government passed a law.	-ment suffix		environment
9	mischievous	The mischievous cat knocked it.	-ous pattern		courageous
10	curiosity	Curiosity drives discovery.	-ity suffix		electricity
	GRADE 4–5 TOTAL			__ / 10	FORM B __ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION AT ALL LEVELS: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST F-4: SENTENCE WRITING — CONVENTIONS & CONSTRUCTION

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can write grammatically complete, conventionally correct sentences. Tests capitalization, punctuation, subject-verb agreement, and sentence completeness.

 

DO: Give student lined paper.

SAY: 'I am going to say some sentences. Write each sentence exactly as I say it. Use correct spelling, capital letters, and punctuation.'

FORM A sentences (dictate clearly): 1) The brown dog ran fast.  2) She ate three apples for lunch.  3) Did you see the rainbow yesterday?  4) The children laughed and played in the park.  5) My teacher said that reading every day makes you smarter.

FORM B sentences: 1) Two birds sat on a branch.  2) He finished his homework before dinner.  3) Where did you put my blue jacket?  4) The storm knocked down several tall trees.  5) Scientists have discovered many new species in the deep ocean.

 

Sentence Writing Scoring Rubric

Feature	Description	Points Each	Form A	Form B
Initial Capital	First word of sentence capitalized	1 per sentence
End Punctuation	Correct . ! or ? used	1 per sentence
Internal Punctuation	Commas, apostrophes used correctly	1 per sentence
Spelling Accuracy	90%+ words spelled correctly	1 per sentence
Complete Sentence	Subject + predicate, no fragment	1 per sentence
TOTAL (5 sentences × 5 points)		25	__ / 25	__ / 25

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 21/25 (84%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST F-5: WRITTEN EXPRESSION — PARAGRAPH & COMPOSITION

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to compose a paragraph or short piece of writing in response to a prompt. Evaluates idea development, organization, sentence variety, vocabulary, and conventions. Use only ONE prompt per administration (Form A prompt for pre-assessment, Form B prompt for post-assessment).

 

Writing Prompts by Level

LEVEL 1 (Grades K–1): Sentence Writing

Form	Prompt (read aloud; student may draw then write)
A	Draw a picture of your favorite animal. Then write ONE sentence about why you like it.
B	Draw a picture of something you love to do. Then write ONE sentence about it.

 

LEVEL 2 (Grades 2–3): Paragraph Writing

Form	Prompt
A	Write a paragraph (at least 5 sentences) about your favorite season. Tell why you like it and give at least two specific examples.
B	Write a paragraph (at least 5 sentences) about an animal you find interesting. Include at least two facts about it.

 

LEVEL 3 (Grades 4–5): Short Essay

Form	Prompt
A	Some people think children should be allowed to have cell phones in school. Others disagree. Write 2–3 paragraphs expressing YOUR opinion and giving at least two reasons with examples to support it.
B	Should students have homework every night? Write 2–3 paragraphs stating your position and supporting it with at least two specific reasons.

 

LEVEL 4 (Grades 6–8): Extended Essay

Form	Prompt
A	What is the most important challenge facing young people today? Write a well-organized essay of 3–5 paragraphs that states a clear claim, provides evidence to support it, and acknowledges at least one opposing viewpoint.
B	What historical figure from any time period do you believe had the greatest positive impact on the world? Write a 3–5 paragraph essay defending your choice with specific evidence.

 

Written Expression Analytic Rubric (6-Point Scale per Trait)

Trait	6 — Advanced	4–5 — Proficient	2–3 — Developing	0–1 — Beginning	Score
IDEAS & CONTENT	Clear, focused, supported with specific details and examples	Topic clear, mostly developed with some detail	Topic present but underdeveloped; few details	No clear topic or details	__ /6
ORGANIZATION	Strong intro, body, conclusion; logical flow; transitions used	Recognizable structure; mostly logical	Some structure present but uneven	No discernible structure	__ /6
VOICE & WORD CHOICE	Engaging, original voice; varied, precise vocabulary	Some voice; adequate word choice	Flat voice; repetitive or imprecise vocabulary	No voice; very limited vocabulary	__ /6
SENTENCE FLUENCY	Varied sentence structures; reads smoothly aloud	Some variety; mostly readable	Choppy or run-on sentences; little variety	Fragments; sentences difficult to read	__ /6
CONVENTIONS	Few or no errors in spelling, caps, punct., grammar	Some errors, do not interfere with reading	Frequent errors; some interference	Pervasive errors; meaning obscured	__ /6
TOTAL					__ /30

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 24/30 (80%) = Mastery. Target below-mastery traits for explicit writing instruction.

 

Score Range	Performance Level	Instructional Implication
25–30	Advanced	Extend through more complex prompts; focus on genre study
19–24	Proficient	Enrichment; focus on specific weaker traits
13–18	Developing	Targeted instruction in lowest-scoring traits; daily writing practice
Below 13	Beginning	Sentence-level instruction first; use mentor texts; frequent conferencing

 

Domain F Total — Letter Formation: __ / 26  |  Spelling: __ / 40  |  Sentences: __ / 25  |  Composition: __ / 30  |  DOMAIN TOTAL: __ / 121

 

DOMAIN G: GRAMMAR, LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS & MORPHOLOGY

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

Knowledge of grammar, syntax, and morphology is strongly linked to reading comprehension and writing quality (Myhill et al., 2012). Morphological awareness — understanding how prefixes, suffixes, and root words combine to create meaning — is especially predictive of vocabulary growth and reading comprehension in Grades 3 and above (Carlisle, 2010). The HLAI Grammar Domain covers: parts of speech identification, sentence structure, punctuation conventions, and morphological analysis.

 

 

SUBTEST G-1: PARTS OF SPEECH IDENTIFICATION (Grades 2–8)

Purpose

Assesses the student's ability to identify and use nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections in sentences.

 

SAY: 'Read each sentence. Then answer the question about the underlined word.'

DO: For younger students (Gr. 2–3), administer orally. For Gr. 4+, student may read independently.

 

FORM A — Parts of Speech (Grades 2–4)

#	Sentence & Question	Correct Answer	Student Answer	Score
1	The fluffy cat slept on the warm rug. What part of speech is 'cat'?	Noun
2	She ran quickly to the door. What part of speech is 'ran'?	Verb
3	The tall man wore a blue hat. What part of speech is 'blue'?	Adjective
4	He spoke very softly. What part of speech is 'softly'?	Adverb
5	She gave her book to him. What part of speech is 'her'?	Pronoun (possessive)
6	The dog ran under the table. What part of speech is 'under'?	Preposition
7	I like apples and oranges. What part of speech is 'and'?	Conjunction
8	Wow! That was amazing! What part of speech is 'Wow'?	Interjection
9	The children played happily in the park. Identify ALL nouns.	children, park
10	Although it rained, we played outside. What type of sentence is this?	Complex
	TOTAL			__ / 10

 

FORM B — Parts of Speech (Grades 2–4)

#	Sentence & Question	Correct Answer	Student Answer	Score
1	Three tiny birds sat on the fence. What part of speech is 'fence'?	Noun
2	The wind howled through the trees. What part of speech is 'howled'?	Verb
3	She wore a sparkly dress. What part of speech is 'sparkly'?	Adjective
4	He finished his work quite rapidly. What part of speech is 'rapidly'?	Adverb
5	They brought their lunch to school. What part of speech is 'their'?	Pronoun (possessive)
6	The cat sat beside the fireplace. What part of speech is 'beside'?	Preposition
7	We can go, but we must leave early. What part of speech is 'but'?	Conjunction
8	Ouch! That really hurt! What part of speech is 'Ouch'?	Interjection
9	The generous teacher gave extra time to every student. Identify ALL adjectives.	generous, extra, every
10	Because he studied hard, he passed the test. What type of sentence is this?	Complex
	TOTAL			__ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST G-2: ADVANCED GRAMMAR — SENTENCE STRUCTURE (Grades 4–8)

Purpose

Assesses understanding of sentence types, clause analysis, subject-verb agreement, verb tense, and common grammatical conventions required for complex reading and writing.

 

FORM A — Advanced Grammar

#	Question / Sentence	Correct Answer	Student	Score
1	Correct the error: 'Neither the students nor the teacher were ready.'	was ready
2	Identify the clause type: 'when the storm ended' — independent or dependent?	Dependent
3	Combine using a semicolon: 'I was tired. I kept working.'	I was tired; I kept working.
4	What is the antecedent of 'they' in: 'The birds flew south because they sensed winter.'?	birds
5	Change to passive voice: 'The dog chased the cat.'	The cat was chased by the dog.
6	Identify the error: 'Running to the store, the rain started to fall.'	Dangling modifier
7	What is the function of the dash in: 'One skill — persistence — sets leaders apart.'?	Parenthetical emphasis / appositive
8	Identify: 'She sings well' vs. 'She sang well.' What grammatical feature changes?	Verb tense
9	What type of phrase is 'in the morning' in: 'She exercises in the morning'?	Prepositional phrase (adverbial)
10	Correct: 'Between you and I, this is difficult.'	Between you and me...
	TOTAL			__ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery.

 

SUBTEST G-3: MORPHOLOGICAL AWARENESS — PREFIXES, SUFFIXES & ROOTS

Purpose

Assesses whether the student can use knowledge of morphemes — the smallest units of meaning — to determine word meaning. Morphological awareness is one of the strongest predictors of vocabulary and reading comprehension growth in Grades 3–8 (Carlisle, 2010).

 

MORPHEME REFERENCE CHART

Common Prefixes — Teach these first:

 

Prefix	Meaning	Example	Prefix	Meaning	Example	Prefix	Meaning	Example
un-	not/opposite	unhappy	re-	again	replay	pre-	before	preview
dis-	not/opposite	disagree	mis-	wrong	mistake	non-	not	nonsense
over-	too much	overload	under-	too little	underpay	inter-	between	interact
trans-	across	transport	sub-	under	submarine	super-	above	superman
anti-	against	antifreeze	auto-	self	automatic	bi-	two	bicycle

 

Common Suffixes:

 

Suffix	Meaning/Function	Example	Suffix	Meaning/Function	Example
-tion/-sion	act or process (noun)	creation	-ment	result/state (noun)	movement
-ness	state of being (noun)	happiness	-ity/-ty	state/quality (noun)	clarity
-ful	full of (adj)	careful	-less	without (adj)	careless
-able/-ible	capable of (adj)	readable	-ous/-ious	having quality (adj)	famous
-ly	in the manner of (adv)	quickly	-er/-est	comparative/superlative	bigger
-ed	past tense	walked	-ing	present participle	walking

 

Common Latin & Greek Roots:

 

Root	Origin	Meaning	Words	Root	Origin	Meaning	Words
port	Latin	carry	transport, portable	rupt	Latin	break	disrupt, corrupt
dict	Latin	say/tell	predict, dictate	aud	Latin	hear	audible, audience
vis/vid	Latin	see	visible, video	scrib/script	Latin	write	describe, scripture
struct	Latin	build	construct, instruct	spec/spect	Latin	look	inspect, spectator
graph	Greek	write	biography, photograph	phon	Greek	sound	telephone, phonics
geo	Greek	earth	geography, geology	bio	Greek	life	biology, biography
chron	Greek	time	chronology, chronic	astro	Greek	star	astronomy, astronaut
micro	Greek	small	microscope, microbe	tele	Greek	far	telescope, television

 

 

FORM A — Morphology Assessment (Grades 3–8)

#	Question	Correct Answer	Score
1	What does the prefix 'un-' mean in 'unlock'?	Not; to reverse
2	What does the suffix '-ful' mean in 'hopeful'?	Full of; having
3	If 'port' means carry, what does 'transport' mean?	To carry across; move from one place to another
4	What does 'unhelpful' mean? Break it into parts.	Un- (not) + help + -ful (full of) = not full of help
5	If 'vis' means see, what does 'invisible' mean?	Not able to be seen
6	Create a word using 're-' that means 'to read again'.	reread
7	What root word do 'predict,' 'dictionary,' and 'contradict' share? What does it mean?	'dict' = to say/tell
8	What does 'disruption' mean? (dis- + rupt + -ion)	dis- (apart) + rupt (break) + -ion (noun) = breaking apart; interference
9	What part of speech is 'careless'? What suffix makes it that part of speech?	Adjective; -less suffix
10	If 'chronology' means the arrangement of events in time, what does 'chron' mean?	Time
11	What does 'autobiography' mean? (auto + bio + graph + y)	Self (auto) + life (bio) + write (graph) = the story of one's own life
12	Change 'happy' to a noun using a suffix.	happiness (-ness)
	TOTAL		__ / 12

 

FORM B — Morphology Assessment

#	Question	Correct Answer	Score
1	What does 'misunderstand' mean? (mis- + understand)	To understand incorrectly or wrongly
2	What does the suffix '-tion' tell you about a word's part of speech?	It's a noun
3	If 'aud' means hear, what does 'auditorium' mean?	A place where you go to hear (performances)
4	What does 'prehistoric' mean? (pre- + historic)	Before recorded history; from before history
5	What root do 'description,' 'manuscript,' and 'prescribe' share? What does it mean?	'scrib/script' = write
6	Add a suffix to 'create' to make a noun.	creation (-tion) or creator (-or)
7	What does 'microphone' mean? (micro + phon + e)	Small (micro) + sound (phon) = instrument that captures/amplifies small sounds
8	What does 'nonfiction' mean? Use morpheme analysis.	non- (not) + fiction = writing that is not fictional; factual writing
9	What does 'predictable' mean? (pre- + dict + -able)	pre (before) + dict (say) + able (capable of) = able to be said/known before it happens
10	If 'sub' means under and 'terr' means earth, what does 'subterranean' mean?	Under the earth; underground
11	Change 'biology' to an adjective.	biological (-ical suffix)
12	What does 'telescope' help you do? (tele + scope)	tele (far) + scope (look at) = look at things that are far away
	TOTAL		__ / 12

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 10/12 (83%) = Mastery.

 

Domain G Total: __ / 10 (POS) + __ / 10 (Advanced Grammar) + __ / 12 (Morphology) = __ / 32

 

DOMAIN H: PRINT CONCEPTS, BOOK HANDLING & PRE-READING FOUNDATIONS

FOR AGES 3–5 ONLY — Pre-K & Kindergarten

 

Before children can learn to decode, they must understand that print carries meaning — a concept called Print Awareness or Concepts About Print (Clay, 2000). The HLAI Pre-Reading Domain assesses early literacy foundations that are predictive of reading success in kindergarten and Grade 1.

 

SUBTEST H-1: CONCEPTS ABOUT PRINT

Purpose

Assesses whether the student understands how books work and how print is organized on a page. Administer using any simple picture book.

 

DO: Sit beside the child with a picture book. Present the book to the child.

SAY each prompt below. Observe and record what the child does.

 

FORM A — Concepts About Print Checklist

#	Prompt (Say or Do)	Skill Being Assessed	Form A +/–	Form B +/–
1	Show me the FRONT of this book.	Front cover identification
2	Show me where to START reading this book.	Beginning of book
3	Show me ONE word on this page.	Word concept
4	Show me ONE letter.	Letter concept
5	Show me where to START reading on this page.	Left-to-right directionality
6	Which way do I go when I get to the end of the line?	Return sweep
7	Show me the PERIOD in this sentence.	Period identification
8	Show me where to go when I finish this page.	Page turning / sequence
9	How many WORDS are in this sentence? (point to a simple sentence)	Word boundaries
10	Show me a CAPITAL letter and a lowercase letter.	Upper/lowercase distinction
	TOTAL		__ / 10	__ / 10

 

MASTERY CRITERION: 8/10 (80%) = Mastery. Any child below mastery should receive explicit print concept instruction.

 

 

SUBTEST H-2: LETTER-WRITING READINESS (Ages 3–5)

Purpose

Assesses pre-writing and early letter formation readiness by having the student copy simple shapes and attempt letter writing. This assesses fine motor development and early print-to-symbol mapping.

 

DO: Give the student a pencil and unlined paper.

SAY: 'Try to copy each shape I draw for you.' (Draw each shape slowly in front of the child, then slide the paper to them.)

SHAPES TO COPY (draw on separate paper): Vertical line  |  Horizontal line  |  Circle  |  Cross (+)  |  Square  |  Triangle  |  Diagonal line  |  Letter T  |  Letter O  |  Letter L

 

FORM A — Shape/Letter Copying Checklist

Shape/Letter	Form A: Legible Copy?	Form B: Legible Copy?	Developmental Note
Vertical line			Age 2–3 typically developing
Horizontal line			Age 2–3
Circle			Age 3
Cross (+)			Age 4
Square			Age 4–5
Triangle			Age 5
Diagonal line			Age 4–5
Letter T			Age 4–5
Letter O			Age 4–5
Letter L			Age 4–5
TOTAL COPIED LEGIBLY	__ / 10	__ / 10

 

NOTE: If a child cannot copy a circle or cross by age 5, consult an occupational therapist about fine motor development.

 

 

SUBTEST H-3: ORAL LANGUAGE & LISTENING VOCABULARY — AGES 3–5

Purpose

Assesses receptive and expressive oral language development in preschool-aged children. Strong oral language at age 4–5 predicts reading comprehension success at Grades 3–5 (Scarborough, 2001).

 

This subtest is done as a CONVERSATION, not a formal test. Sit comfortably with the child.

OBSERVE and RECORD responses. Do NOT correct.

 

Oral Language Observation Checklist — Ages 3–5

Skill	Age Typical	Observed? Y/N	Example/Notes
Speaks in 3-word sentences or more	Age 3
Answers simple 'what' and 'where' questions	Age 3
Knows 5+ colors by name	Age 3–4
Tells a simple 2–3 event story	Age 4
Asks 'why' questions spontaneously	Age 3–4
Uses past tense correctly most of the time	Age 4–5
Speaks in complete, grammatical sentences	Age 4–5
Can follow 3-step oral directions	Age 4–5
Vocabulary of 1,500+ words (estimate by conversation)	Age 4
Can retell a simple story with beginning/middle/end	Age 5
Rhymes words and plays with language	Age 4–5
Identifies own first name in print	Age 4–5
TOTAL OBSERVED		__ / 12

 

NOTE: 10/12 by age 5 = On track. Below 7/12 at age 5 = recommend speech/language screening.

 

DOMAIN I: ORAL READING ANALYSIS — RUNNING RECORD & MISCUE ANALYSIS

RESEARCH FOUNDATION

 

A Running Record (Clay, 2000) or Informal Reading Inventory (IRI) captures a detailed picture of a student's reading behavior during oral reading — recording not just whether words are correct, but HOW errors (miscues) are made. Miscue analysis, developed by Goodman (1969) and refined through decades of literacy research, reveals which cueing systems a student relies on and which need strengthening.

This domain provides a structured Running Record protocol for any of the fluency passages in Domain C, plus a Miscue Analysis System for interpreting error patterns diagnostically.

 

RUNNING RECORD CONVENTIONS

Symbol	Meaning	Example	What It Tells You
✓	Correct word	✓ ✓ ✓ ✓	Accurate reading
[error word]	Substitution	horse [house]	Student said 'house' for 'horse'
—	Omission	The — dog ran	Student skipped the word
[inserted word]	Insertion	The [big] dog ran	Added a word not in text
T	Told (after 5 sec pause)	T	Examiner told the word
SC	Self-correction	[house] SC	Student caught and fixed the error
R	Repetition	R2 (the)	Student repeated; number indicates how many times
[A]	Appeal	[A]	Student looked to examiner for help

 

CALCULATING READING LEVELS

Accuracy Rate	Reading Level	Instructional Implication
96–100%	INDEPENDENT	Student can read this level alone without support.
90–95%	INSTRUCTIONAL	Student benefits from guided reading at this level.
Below 90%	FRUSTRATIONAL	Text is too hard; use easier material for instruction.

 

Formula: Accuracy % = (Total Words – Errors) ÷ Total Words × 100

Self-Correction Rate: SC Rate = (Errors + Self-Corrections) ÷ Self-Corrections. A ratio of 1:4 or better indicates healthy self-monitoring behavior.

 

 

RUNNING RECORD RECORDING SHEET

DO: Print the passage from Domain C (or any leveled text). Place the student copy in front of the student.

DO: Use the administrator copy to mark each word as the student reads.

DO: Record EVERY word using the Running Record conventions above.

SAY: 'Read this story out loud to me. Do your best.'

DO: When finished, calculate Accuracy %, WCPM, and Self-Correction Rate.

 

Running Record Data Summary

Field	Form A (Pre)	Form B (Post)

 

Record: Student Name, Date, Passage Title, Level, Total Words, Errors, Self-Corrections, Accuracy %, WCPM, Reading Level (Ind/Inst/Frust), Dominant Error Type

 

 

MISCUE ANALYSIS SYSTEM

Purpose

After completing a Running Record, use this system to categorize and analyze error patterns. Each error (miscue) is examined across three cueing systems.

The Three Cueing Systems

Cueing System	Code	What It Means	Example Error
Semantic (Meaning)	M	Does the error make sense in context? Does it fit the meaning of the sentence?	horse → pony (makes sense)
Syntactic (Structure)	S	Does the error sound like a grammatically correct sentence? Does it fit the grammatical structure?	horse → horses (grammatical)
Graphophonic (Visual/Sound)	V	Does the error look like the printed word? Share beginning, middle, or ending letters?	horse → house (looks similar)

 

Miscue Analysis Recording Grid

Page	Text Says	Student Said	M?	S?	V?	SC?	Analysis Notes
TOTALS			__ /	__ /	__ /	__ /

 

Miscue Analysis Interpretation Guide

Error Pattern	What It Suggests	Instructional Response
High M, High S, Low V	Reader uses meaning/grammar; ignores letters	Strengthen phonics; point-by-point decoding practice
High V, Low M, Low S	Reader decodes but ignores meaning	Strengthen comprehension monitoring; semantic cues
Low M, Low S, Low V	Reader is guessing randomly	Emergent reader needing foundational phonics and oral language
All High	Flexible, proficient reader	Advance to more complex text
Many SCs (self-corrections)	Reader is actively monitoring for meaning	Very positive; celebrate and support this strategy
Few or no SCs	Reader not monitoring comprehension	Teach 'Does that make sense?' strategy

 

 

ORAL READING ANALYSIS: WORD ATTACK STRATEGIES INVENTORY

Purpose

When a student encounters an unknown word during oral reading, what do they do? This checklist helps identify which word-solving strategies the student uses independently.

 

Word Attack Strategies Observation Checklist

Strategy	Description	Observed Y/N	Notes
Sounds It Out (L→R)	Student decodes letter-by-letter or in chunks from left to right
Uses Onset + Rime	Student identifies the initial consonant(s) + the vowel-ending chunk
Looks for Known Parts	Student finds a smaller word or recognizable chunk inside the word
Uses Context Clues	Student reads surrounding words/sentences to guess the unknown word
Rereads the Sentence	Student goes back to the beginning of the sentence for more context
Looks at the Picture	Student uses illustrations to help identify the word
Skips & Returns	Student skips the word, reads to end of sentence, then returns
Applies Syllabication	Student breaks multisyllabic word into syllables to decode
Monitors Self	Student notices when reading doesn't make sense and tries again
Asks for Help	Student appeals to examiner immediately without trying independently
Makes No Attempt	Student stops and waits without trying any strategy

 

TARGET: Students should flexibly use multiple strategies. Overreliance on any ONE strategy (especially 'Asks for Help' or 'Makes No Attempt') indicates need for strategy instruction.

 

APPENDIX A: GOAL-SETTING GUIDE

Use the following framework to write instructional goals and objectives based on HLAI assessment results. Goals should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound.

 

Goal-Writing Template

Given [CONDITION], [STUDENT NAME] will [SKILL/BEHAVIOR] at [CRITERION LEVEL] as measured by [ASSESSMENT] by [DATE].

 

Sample Goals by Domain

Domain A — Phonemic Awareness

•       Given a set of 10 spoken word pairs, [Student] will identify whether the pairs rhyme with 80% accuracy as measured by HLAI Subtest A-1 Form B.

•       Given 8 spoken words, [Student] will correctly segment each word into individual phonemes with 80% accuracy as measured by HLAI Subtest A-6 Form B.

 

Domain B — Phonics

•       Given 26 uppercase letters in random order, [Student] will name all 26 letters correctly in under 60 seconds as measured by HLAI Subtest B-1 Form B.

•       Given a list of 20 CVC and CCVC words, [Student] will decode each word correctly with 90% accuracy using vowel-consonant knowledge as measured by HLAI Subtest B-4 Form B.

 

Domain C — Fluency

•       Given a Grade 2 unpracticed passage, [Student] will read at 95+ WCPM with 95% accuracy as measured by a 1-minute HLAI Fluency Probe.

•       Given a Grade 3 passage, [Student] will read with a prosody score of 3 or 4 on the HLAI Prosody Rubric.

 

Domain D — Vocabulary

•       Given 10 Tier 2 academic words in context sentences, [Student] will select the correct definition or use with 80% accuracy as measured by HLAI Subtest D-2 Form B.

•       Given 10 ELA Tier 3 terms, [Student] will correctly define or identify each term with 80% accuracy as measured by HLAI Subtest D-4 Form B.

 

Domain E — Comprehension

•       Given a Grade 2 leveled passage, [Student] will correctly answer 6/7 comprehension questions (including at least 2 inferential) as measured by HLAI Subtest E-2 Form B.

•       Given a Grade 4 informational passage read aloud, [Student] will demonstrate listening comprehension by correctly answering 7/8 questions including literal and inferential items.

 

 

APPENDIX B: LEARNING CONTINUUM — LITERACY DEVELOPMENT SEQUENCE

This continuum maps HLAI subtests to the typical sequence of literacy skill development. Use this to identify where a student is on the learning continuum and which skills to target next.

 

Level	Age/Grade	Key Skills at This Level	HLAI Subtests
1	Age 3–4	Rhyme recognition, alliteration, concept of print, oral vocabulary, ABC song	A-1, A-2, D-1
2	Age 4–5 / Pre-K	Letter naming (UC/LC), initial sound awareness, phoneme isolation, oral vocabulary	A-3, A-4, B-1, B-2, D-1
3	Age 5–6 / K	All short vowels, CVC decoding, phoneme blending/segmenting, 50 sight words, 40+ WCPM	A-5, A-6, B-3, B-4, B-11 L1, C-L1
4	Age 6–7 / Gr.1	Digraphs, blends, long vowel CVCe, 100+ sight words, phoneme deletion, 70+ WCPM	A-7, B-5, B-6, B-7, B-11 L2–3, C-L2
5	Age 7–8 / Gr.2	R-controlled vowels, diphthongs, variant vowels, nonsense word decoding, 100+ WCPM	A-8, B-8, B-9, B-10, C-L3, D-2 L1–2, E-2
6	Age 8–9 / Gr.3	2-syllable decoding, Tier 2 vocab, 115+ WCPM, inferential comprehension	B-12, B-13, C-L4, D-2, D-4, E-3
7	Age 9–10 / Gr.4	Multi-syllabic reading, Tier 3 vocab, 133+ WCPM, text structure, author's purpose	B-12, C-L5, D-3, D-5, E-3, E-4
8	Age 10–11 / Gr.5	Fluent reading 140+ WCPM, advanced Tier 2, literary analysis, informational text	C-L5–6, D-3, D-4, D-5, E-4
9	Age 11–13 / Gr.6–8	165+ WCPM, academic argument, critical evaluation, complex text structure	C-L7, D-3, D-5, E-5

 

 

APPENDIX C: FLUENCY DRILL PASSAGES — ADDITIONAL PRACTICE SETS

These passages are designed for repeated oral reading practice — NOT assessment. To build fluency, have the student read each passage 3–5 times until they reach the target WCPM. Track progress with the Fluency Log below.

 

Fluency Practice Passage P-1: Grade 1 Level

THE SNOWY DAY (~75 words)  |  Target: 71–82 WCPM

 

Snow fell all night long. In the morning, the yard was white. Jake put on his boots and coat. He ran outside. The snow was soft and deep. He made a big snowball. Then he made another. He stacked them up. He found a carrot for a nose and buttons for eyes. His snowman looked just right. Mom called him in for hot cocoa. Jake looked back at his snowman and smiled.

 

Fluency Practice Passage P-2: Grade 2 Level

BEES AND FLOWERS (~100 words)  |  Target: 95–105 WCPM

 

Bees and flowers need each other to survive. When a bee visits a flower in search of nectar, tiny grains of pollen stick to its fuzzy body. As the bee travels from flower to flower, it carries this pollen along with it. When the pollen falls onto a new flower of the same type, the flower can produce seeds. This process is called pollination, and it is essential for growing fruits and vegetables. Without bees, many of our favorite foods — from apples to almonds — would not exist. That is why protecting bee populations is so important for all of us.

 

Fluency Practice Passage P-3: Grade 3–4 Level

THE SAHARA DESERT (~120 words)  |  Target: 115–133 WCPM

 

The Sahara Desert is the largest hot desert on Earth, covering nearly a third of the African continent. Although many people picture the Sahara as an endless sea of sand dunes, most of its terrain is actually rocky, flat plains. Temperatures in the Sahara can exceed 130 degrees Fahrenheit during the day, yet plunge below freezing at night — a difference of more than 100 degrees in a single day. The Sahara is home to a surprising variety of life, including camels, fennec foxes, scorpions, and over 500 species of plants. Along its edges and in hidden oases, communities of people have lived for thousands of years, adapting their lifestyles to one of Earth's most extreme environments. The Sahara continues to grow slightly each year as climate change alters rainfall patterns.

 

Fluency Log

Date	Passage	Attempt #	WCPM	Accuracy %	Prosody Score

 

 

APPENDIX D: REFERENCE CHARTS

The 44 Phonemes of English — Quick Reference

CONSONANT PHONEMES (25)

 

Phoneme	Grapheme(s)	Example	Phoneme	Grapheme(s)	Example	Phoneme	Grapheme(s)	Example
/p/	p	pen	/b/	b	bat	/t/	t	tap
/d/	d	dog	/k/	c,k,ck	cat	/g/	g	got
/f/	f,ph	fun	/v/	v	van	/θ/	th	thin
/ð/	th	this	/s/	s,c	sun	/z/	z,s	zip
/ʃ/	sh,ti,ci	ship	/ʒ/	si,ge	vision	/h/	h	hot
/tʃ/	ch,tch	chip	/dʒ/	j,g,dge	jump	/m/	m	man
/n/	n	nut	/ŋ/	ng,n	sing	/l/	l	lip
/r/	r	run	/w/	w	win	/j/	y	yes
/x/ (kw)	qu	queen

 

VOWEL PHONEMES (19)

 

Phoneme	Grapheme(s)	Example	Phoneme	Grapheme(s)	Example
/æ/ short a	a	cat	/ɛ/ short e	e,ea	bed
/ɪ/ short i	i	sit	/ɒ/ short o	o,a	top
/ʌ/ short u	u,o	cup	/eɪ/ long a	a_e,ai,ay,ei	cake
/iː/ long e	ee,ea,e,y	feet	/aɪ/ long i	i_e,igh,ie,y	kite
/oʊ/ long o	o_e,oa,ow	bone	/juː/ long u	u_e,ew,ue	cube
/ɑːr/ ar	ar	car	/ɜːr/ er/ir/ur	er,ir,ur,ear	her
/ɔːr/ or	or,ore	corn	/ʊ/ short oo	oo,u	book
/uː/ long oo	oo,ue,ew	moon	/ɔː/ aw/au	aw,au,al	saw
/ɔɪ/ oi	oi,oy	oil	/aʊ/ ou/ow	ou,ow	out
/ə/ schwa	a,e,i,o,u	about

 

 

APPENDIX E: BIBLIOGRAPHY & RESEARCH FOUNDATION

Core Research Sources

•       Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

•       Coxhead, A. (2000). A New Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238.

•       Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the Simple View of Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S25–S44.

•       Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21.

•       Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. [Simple View of Reading]

•       Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. (2017). An update to compiled ORF norms (Technical Report No. 1702). University of Oregon, Behavioral Research and Teaching.

•       Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties. Wiley.

•       National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read. NIH Publication No. 00-4769. U.S. Government Printing Office.

•       Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy. Guilford Press. [Scarborough's Reading Rope]

•       Shaywitz, S. (2020). Overcoming Dyslexia (2nd ed.). Vintage Books.

 

Additional References

•       Dolch, E. W. (1936). A basic sight vocabulary. Elementary School Journal, 36, 456–460.

•       Fry, E. (1980). The new instant word list. The Reading Teacher, 34(3), 284–289.

•       Good, R. H., & Kaminski, R. A. (Eds.). (2011). DIBELS Next Assessment Manual. Dynamic Measurement Group.

•       Glascoe, F. P. (2009). Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills II. Curriculum Associates.

•       Rasinski, T. (2010). The Fluent Reader: Oral and Silent Reading Strategies for Building Word Recognition, Fluency, and Comprehension (2nd ed.). Scholastic.

•       Wolf, M. (2018). Reader, Come Home: The Reading Brain in a Digital World. HarperCollins.

 

 

APPENDIX F: QUICK-START GUIDE FOR HOMESCHOOL FAMILIES

Getting Started in 6 Steps

9.     PRINT THIS INVENTORY. Print this full document. Separate the Student Response Pages (marked 'STUDENT STIMULUS' throughout) and keep the Administrator Pages separate.

10.  IDENTIFY YOUR STARTING LEVEL. Look at the Age and Grade Level Guide on page 3 (Welcome section) and find your child's approximate level. You do NOT need to start at the very beginning — start where your child is.

11.  ADMINISTER FORM A (Pre-Assessment). Give one domain per sitting. Do not rush. Complete all subtests at your child's level.

12.  SCORE AND INTERPRET. Use the Mastery Criteria at the bottom of each subtest. Transfer scores to the Student Profile Sheet (page 2 of the inventory).

13.  SET GOALS using Appendix A. Write 3–5 goals based on the subtests where your child scored below the Mastery Criterion. Focus on the foundational skill that is LOWEST on the continuum.

14.  TEACH, PRACTICE, REASSESS. After a period of instruction and practice (8–12 weeks recommended), administer Form B to measure growth.

 

How Much Time Will This Take?

Age/Grade	Domains to Assess	Estimated Time
Ages 3–4	Domain A, Domain B (B-1 only)	2–3 sittings, 15–20 min each
Kindergarten	Domains A, B (B-1 through B-5)	3–4 sittings, 20–30 min each
Grade 1	Domains A, B, C (L2), D-1	4–5 sittings, 30 min each
Grade 2	Domains B, C (L3), D-2, E-2	3–4 sittings, 40 min each
Grades 3–4	Domains B-12, C, D, E-3	3 sittings, 45 min each
Grades 5–8	Domains C, D, E-4/5	2–3 sittings, 60 min each

 

Signs to Watch For

SEEK ADDITIONAL EVALUATION if you observe:

 

•       Difficulty learning letter names or sounds despite consistent practice over 3+ months

•       Inability to blend phonemes by age 6 even with instruction

•       Reading significantly below grade level despite regular, structured instruction

•       Signs of letter/number reversal that persist beyond age 7–8

•       Strong listening comprehension but very weak reading comprehension at the same grade level

•       Fluency scores consistently 20+ WCPM below grade-level norms despite intervention

These may indicate dyslexia or another learning difference. Early intervention is crucial. Contact a reading specialist, educational psychologist, or your local public school's special education department for a free evaluation.

 

HLAI — Homeschool Literacy Assessment Inventory | Based on the Science of Reading | Rooted in Research, Designed for Families

APPENDIX G: COMPLETE SCOPE AND SEQUENCE — PHONICS & SPELLING

Use this scope and sequence to plan systematic phonics instruction aligned to student performance on HLAI Domain B and Domain F assessments. Skills are listed in recommended teaching order from research (Spear-Swerling, 2019; Moats, 2020).

 

Level	Grade	Phonics Skills in Teaching Order	HLAI Subtests
1	Pre-K/K	Letter names (UC) → Letter names (LC) → Consonant sounds (high-frequency) → Short /a/ + CVC → Short /i/ → Short /o/ → Short /e/ → Short /u/ → CVC blending + segmenting	B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4
2	K–1	Digraphs: sh, ch, th (voiced + unvoiced), wh, ng → Initial blends (s-blends, l-blends, r-blends) → Final blends (-nd, -st, -lt, -sk) → Sight words levels 1–2	B-5, B-6, B-11 L1–2
3	Gr. 1	CVCe (long a, i, o, u, e) → Vowel teams: ai/ay, ee/ea, oa/ow, ue/ew → igh pattern → Sight words level 3	B-7, B-11 L3
4	Gr. 1–2	R-controlled: ar, or, er/ir/ur → Vowel diphthongs: oi/oy, ou/ow → Variant vowels: oo (long + short), au/aw → Sight words level 4	B-8, B-9
5	Gr. 2–3	Compound words → Inflectional endings (-s, -es, -ed, -ing, -er, -est) with consonant doubling, drop-e, change-y rules → Contractions → Sight words level 5–6	F-3 Grade 3
6	Gr. 3–4	Open + closed syllable patterns → VCCle syllable type → Prefix: un-, re-, pre-, dis-, mis- → Suffix: -ful, -less, -ness, -tion, -ment → 2-syllable decoding	B-12, G-3
7	Gr. 4–5	Latin roots: port, dict, rupt, aud, vis, scrib, struct, spec → Greek roots: graph, phon, geo, bio, chron → Prefix: inter-, trans-, sub-, super-, anti- → Suffix: -ous, -ive, -ible/-able, -ity	G-3
8	Gr. 5–6	Derivational suffixes → Multisyllabic word strategies → Homophones + homographs → Advanced irregular spelling patterns → Academic word morphology	F-3 Grade 4–5, G-3

 

 

APPENDIX H: COMPREHENSIVE GOAL-WRITING TOOLKIT

Complete IEP/Homeschool Goal Bank — All Domains

Goals are provided at three levels: Long-Term Goal (annual), Short-Term Objective (6–8 weeks), and Benchmark (2–3 weeks). Customize by inserting student name, current baseline, and target date.

 

DOMAIN A — PHONEMIC AWARENESS GOALS

 

Rhyme Awareness

•       LTG: Given 20 spoken word pairs, [Student] will correctly identify rhyming pairs with 90% accuracy as measured by HLAI A-1 Form B.

•       STO: Given 10 spoken word pairs, [Student] will correctly identify rhyming pairs with 80% accuracy in 2 of 3 consecutive trials.

•       Benchmark: Given 5 spoken word pairs, [Student] will correctly identify at least 4 rhyming pairs.

 

Phoneme Segmentation

•       LTG: Given 10 spoken words of 3–5 phonemes, [Student] will correctly segment all phonemes in 8/10 words as measured by HLAI A-6 Form B.

•       STO: Given CVC words, [Student] will correctly segment all 3 phonemes in 8/10 words.

•       Benchmark: Given 5 CVC words, [Student] will segment at least 4 words correctly.

 

DOMAIN B — PHONICS GOALS

 

•       LTG: Given 26 uppercase and 26 lowercase letters in random order, [Student] will name all 52 letters correctly as measured by HLAI B-1 and B-2.

•       LTG: Given a list of 15 CVC and CCVC nonsense words, [Student] will decode 85% correctly as measured by HLAI B-10 Form B.

•       LTG: Given connected text at Grade [X] level, [Student] will read with 95%+ accuracy using phonics knowledge as measured by running record.

 

DOMAIN C — FLUENCY GOALS

 

•       LTG: Given an unpracticed Grade [X] passage, [Student] will read at [XX] WCPM (50th percentile for grade level) with 95% accuracy as measured by HLAI fluency probe.

•       STO: Given a Grade [X] passage practiced 3x, [Student] will read at [XX] WCPM by [date].

•       LTG: Given an oral reading passage, [Student] will receive a prosody rating of 3 or 4 on the HLAI Prosody Rubric.

 

DOMAIN D — VOCABULARY GOALS

 

•       LTG: Given 20 Tier 2 academic words in context sentences, [Student] will demonstrate understanding of 80% of words through definition, use, or sentence context as measured by HLAI D-2 Form B.

•       LTG: Given 10 ELA-specific Tier 3 terms, [Student] will correctly identify the definition or usage of 8/10 terms.

•       STO: Given 5 new Tier 2 vocabulary words in a semantic word map activity, [Student] will use 4/5 words correctly in oral sentences.

 

DOMAIN E — COMPREHENSION GOALS

 

•       LTG: Given a grade-level informational passage, [Student] will correctly answer 85% of comprehension questions including at least 3 inferential items.

•       STO: Given a Grade [X] passage, [Student] will correctly answer all literal questions (100%) and at least 1 inferential question.

•       LTG: Given a passage read aloud, [Student] will demonstrate listening comprehension by correctly answering 80% of questions including at least 2 inferential questions.

 

DOMAIN F — WRITING & SPELLING GOALS

 

•       LTG: Given dictation of 26 uppercase and 26 lowercase letters, [Student] will write 50/52 letters legibly and without reversals as measured by HLAI F-1 Form B.

•       LTG: Given dictation of 10 grade-level spelling words, [Student] will spell 8/10 correctly as measured by HLAI F-3 Form B.

•       LTG: Given a writing prompt, [Student] will compose a 5-sentence paragraph scored 4/5 or higher per trait on the HLAI Written Expression Rubric.

•       STO: Given a writing prompt, [Student] will write 3 complete sentences with correct capitalization and end punctuation.

 

DOMAIN G — GRAMMAR & MORPHOLOGY GOALS

 

•       LTG: Given 12 sentences, [Student] will correctly identify the part of speech of the underlined word in 10/12 sentences.

•       LTG: Given 12 morphology questions, [Student] will correctly use prefix/suffix/root knowledge to determine word meaning in 10/12 items.

•       STO: Given 5 new words containing known Latin roots, [Student] will determine the meaning of 4/5 words using morpheme analysis.

 

 

APPENDIX I: PROGRESS MONITORING SCHEDULE & RECORD

For students receiving intervention or who scored below mastery on any HLAI domain, use this schedule for ongoing progress monitoring.

 

Recommended Progress Monitoring Frequency

Student Profile	Progress Monitoring Frequency	Tools to Use
At/above grade level	Quarterly (every 8–10 weeks)	HLAI Form B at end of year
1 year below grade level	Monthly (every 4–5 weeks)	HLAI subtests in target domains
2+ years below grade level	Bi-weekly (every 2–3 weeks)	Selected HLAI subtests + fluency probes
Suspected learning disability	Weekly	Targeted skill probes; consult specialist

 

Progress Monitoring Log

Date	Domain/Subtest	Score / WCPM	Mastery?	Instructional Focus This Period

 

 

APPENDIX J: INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES & RECOMMENDED PROGRAMS

The HLAI is an assessment tool, not a curriculum. Once you have identified areas of need using the HLAI, the following evidence-based programs and resources align with science of reading principles and can be used for instruction.

 

Programs by Domain

Phonemic Awareness

•       Heggerty Phonemic Awareness Curriculum (heggerty.com) — daily 10-minute lessons, Pre-K through Grade 2

•       Equipped for Reading Success (David Kilpatrick) — phonemic awareness and orthographic mapping

•       Road to Reading (Blachman et al.) — research-based phonemic awareness activities

 

Phonics & Decoding

•       SPIRE (Specialized Program Individualizing Reading Excellence) — structured literacy, K–8

•       Barton Reading and Spelling System — Orton-Gillingham based, highly scripted for parents

•       Logic of English — comprehensive phonics with all 74 phonogram spellings

•       All About Reading / All About Spelling — parent-friendly Orton-Gillingham approach

•       Wilson Reading System — for students with significant decoding deficits

•       RAVE-O — meaning + fluency + phonics integration, Grades 2–5

 

Fluency

•       Repeated Reading — student reads same passage 3–5x to build automaticity (research: Samuels, 1979)

•       Readers Theater — performance-based fluency practice with high engagement

•       Six-Minute Solution (Adams & Brown) — structured daily fluency practice K–8

•       Great Leaps Reading — one-on-one timed fluency practice

 

Vocabulary

•       Beck, McKeown & Kucan's Tier 2 vocabulary instruction (Bringing Words to Life)

•       Vocabulary Their Way (Bear et al.) — word sorts and vocabulary development

•       Flocabulary — video-based vocabulary for Grades 4–12 (online)

•       Word Generation (SERP Institute) — academic vocabulary for Grades 4–8

 

Comprehension

•       Visualizing and Verbalizing (Lindamood-Bell) — comprehension through imagery

•       SRA Reading Mastery — direct instruction comprehension

•       Reciprocal Teaching (Palincsar & Brown) — predict, question, clarify, summarize

•       Close Reading routines (Fisher & Frey) — text-dependent questioning

 

Writing & Spelling

•       Words Their Way (Bear et al.) — developmental spelling based on word study

•       RAVE-O — vocabulary + spelling integration

•       6 Traits Writing — organization, ideas, voice, word choice, fluency, conventions

•       Step Up to Writing (Sopris West) — structured writing for Grades 3–8

•       All About Spelling — sequential, Orton-Gillingham spelling aligned to phonics sequence

 

 

APPENDIX K: QUICK REFERENCE — DYSLEXIA INDICATORS & NEXT STEPS

IMPORTANT NOTICE: The HLAI is NOT a dyslexia diagnostic tool. It identifies skill gaps. Only qualified professionals (educational psychologists, neuropsychologists, reading specialists) can diagnose dyslexia.

 

However, the HLAI can help identify students who may need further evaluation. The following indicators, especially when persistent across multiple HLAI administrations despite quality instruction, may suggest the need for a comprehensive evaluation.

 

Potential Indicators of Dyslexia or Reading Disability

Early Indicators (Ages 3–6)

•       Difficulty learning and remembering letter names despite repeated exposure

•       Below average phonological awareness — especially difficulty with rhyming, segmenting, and blending

•       Slow or inaccurate letter-sound learning

•       Family history of reading difficulties

•       Limited word retrieval — takes unusual time to think of common words

 

Primary Grade Indicators (Ages 6–8 / Grades 1–2)

•       Reading significantly below grade level despite systematic phonics instruction

•       Very slow reading; excessive effort on word-level reading

•       Persistent letter/number reversals beyond age 7

•       Difficulty with nonsense word decoding (HLAI B-10) even after phonics instruction

•       Poor phoneme segmentation and manipulation (HLAI A-6, A-7, A-8)

•       Spelling far below grade level; phonetically bizarre spellings for known words

•       Strong comprehension when text is READ ALOUD, but weak reading comprehension when reading independently

 

Later Indicators (Ages 8+ / Grades 3+)

•       Fluency 20+ WCPM below grade-level norms despite intervention

•       Continued difficulty with multisyllabic word decoding

•       Avoidance of reading; significant anxiety around reading tasks

•       Significant discrepancy between verbal ability (strong) and reading/spelling (weak)

•       Difficulty learning and retaining new vocabulary from print

 

What to Do

15.  DOCUMENT: Record HLAI assessment data across at least two administrations.

16.  PROVIDE INTERVENTION: Use structured literacy approaches (Orton-Gillingham, Wilson, Barton) for at least 8–12 weeks.

17.  MONITOR RESPONSE: If the student does not respond to quality intervention, escalate.

18.  CONTACT your local public school district: By law in the U.S. (IDEA 2004), all children — including homeschooled students — are entitled to a free evaluation for learning disabilities. Contact your local district's special education department.

19.  PRIVATE EVALUATION: A neuropsychologist or educational psychologist can administer a comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation to diagnose dyslexia and other learning differences.

20.  ACCOMMODATIONS: Students with a confirmed learning disability may be entitled to testing accommodations (extended time, text-to-speech) for standardized tests including the SAT, ACT, and AP exams.

 

RESOURCES: International Dyslexia Association (dyslexiaida.org)  •  Reading Rockets (readingrockets.org)  •  LD Online (ldonline.org)  •  Decoding Dyslexia (decodingdyslexia.net)