Reading Sage · Shawn Taylor · Educator & Blogger

The Art of Argument

A Full-Stack Curriculum in Rhetoric, Debate, Propaganda Analysis, Media Literacy & Persuasive Writing — AP, A-Level & Oxford/Cambridge PPE Standard

Prepared for Students Pursuing Law · Public Service · Politics · Journalism

Democracy does not run on good intentions — it runs on argument. This curriculum arms students with the ancient tools of rhetoric and the modern tools of media literacy, preparing them to speak, write, detect, and dismantle persuasion at the highest levels of civic, academic, and professional life.

Curriculum Philosophy

Why Argument Is the Core Skill of the 21st Century

At Oxford and Cambridge, the PPE (Philosophy, Politics, and Economics) degree is built on a single premise: that educated citizens must be able to reason clearly, argue persuasively, and detect manipulation reliably. In the United States, AP English Language and AP Seminar courses approach the same goal through a different door — close reading, synthesis of sources, and rhetorical analysis. This curriculum weaves both traditions into a single coherent programme.

"Rhetoric is the art of discovering, in any given case, the available means of persuasion."— Aristotle, Rhetoric, 4th century B.C.

Students who complete this curriculum will not merely learn to debate — they will learn to think: to identify the hidden architecture inside any speech, advertisement, political platform, or social media post. They will understand why propaganda works, how logical fallacies seduce even intelligent audiences, and how to construct arguments that stand up to the most rigorous cross-examination.

⚖️

Logos

Logic, evidence, reasoning, and the structure of valid argument

🔥

Pathos

Emotional appeal, narrative, empathy, and audience psychology

👁️

Ethos

Credibility, authority, persona, and the ethics of persuasion

Dual-Track Design

Two Nations, One Discipline: US & UK Parallel Pathways

This curriculum is designed to serve students in both the American AP / dual-enrollment system and the British A-Level / university entrance system simultaneously. Where the pathways diverge, content is flagged clearly. The Oxford/Cambridge PPE standard is the ceiling for both tracks.

🇺🇸 United States Track

AP English Language & Composition
AP Seminar / AP Research
Dual-Enrollment Composition/Rhetoric
Pre-Law / Political Science preparation
National Forensic League (NFL) debate formats
Lincoln-Douglas, Policy, and Public Forum Debate
Common Core ELA integration (Grades 9–12)

🇬🇧 United Kingdom Track

A-Level English Language & Literature
A-Level Politics and Critical Thinking
Extended Project Qualification (EPQ)
Oxford/Cambridge PPE entrance preparation
British Parliamentary (BP) debate format
Oxford Union debating tradition
UCAS personal statement rhetoric

Year One — Foundation

The Grammar of Persuasion: Classical Rhetoric & Modern Propaganda

Year One establishes the intellectual foundations: where persuasion comes from, how it has been theorised since antiquity, and how modern propaganda systematically weaponises these ancient techniques against democratic publics.

Unit 1 · 6 Weeks

Classical Rhetoric & the Trivium

Grammar, logic, rhetoric as the three arts of language. Aristotle's three appeals. Cicero's five canons: inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, pronuntiatio.

Unit 2 · 5 Weeks

The Architecture of Argument

Toulmin Model: claim, data, warrant, backing, qualifier, rebuttal. Syllogisms and enthymemes. Inductive vs. deductive reasoning. Analogical argument.

Unit 3 · 6 Weeks

Propaganda: History & Mechanics

Bernays, Lippmann, Goebbels, and Chomsky. The seven classic propaganda techniques. Framing theory. Agenda-setting. Manufacturing consent.

Unit 4 · 5 Weeks

Logical Fallacies in the Wild

Ad hominem, straw man, false dilemma, slippery slope, appeal to authority, hasty generalization, post hoc, bandwagon, red herring, and 30+ more with contemporary case studies.

Unit 5 · 4 Weeks

Media Literacy & Source Criticism

SIFT method. Lateral reading. Evaluating primary vs. secondary sources. Identifying bias, framing, and omission in news media. Misinformation ecosystems.

Unit 6 · 4 Weeks

The Ethics of Persuasion

Where does persuasion end and manipulation begin? Epistemic autonomy. Mill's harm principle. Informed consent as a rhetorical value. Dark patterns in digital media.

Year One: Core Texts

Aristotle — Rhetoric (selections, Books I–III)
Cicero — De Oratore (selections)
Edward Bernays — Propaganda (1928)
Walter Lippmann — Public Opinion (1922, selections)
Noam Chomsky & Edward Herman — Manufacturing Consent (selections)
George Orwell — "Politics and the English Language" (1946 essay)
Victor Klemperer — The Language of the Third Reich (selections)
Stuart Hall — "Encoding/Decoding" (1980 essay)
Neil Postman — Amusing Ourselves to Death (selected chapters)

Year One: Signature Assessments

Propaganda Deconstruction Portfolio

Assignment 1: Analyse three historical propaganda posters (WWII era, Cold War, contemporary advertising) using Aristotle's three appeals and identify at least five propaganda techniques per artefact. US & UK
Assignment 2: Rhetorical précis of a landmark political speech (Lincoln, Churchill, MLK, Obama, Thatcher — student's choice) — 200 words, following the four-sentence format.
Assignment 3: "Logical Fallacy Field Report" — collect 10 real-world examples of logical fallacies from news, social media, or political speeches in a two-week observation window. Annotate each with fallacy name, explanation, and counter-argument.
Final Exam: AP-style rhetorical analysis essay (timed, 40 minutes) on an unseen text from journalism, politics, or advertising. US — Oxford-style 2,500-word essay on propaganda and democratic life. UK

Year Two — Applied Rhetoric

The Craft of Argument: Persuasive Writing & Spoken Debate

Year Two moves from analysis to production. Students learn to write essays and speeches at the highest academic standard — the kind expected in Oxford tutorial essays, AP Language synthesis tasks, and op-ed journalism — and begin formal competitive debate training.

Unit 7 · 6 Weeks

Academic Argument: The Essay as Weapon

Thesis construction. The "They say / I say" framework (Graff & Birkenstein). Qualifying claims. Integrating and synthesising sources. Counterargument as strength. Oxford tutorial essay conventions.

Unit 8 · 5 Weeks

Persuasive Writing Workshop

Op-eds, editorials, policy briefs, speeches, and letters to power. Voice, register, and audience. The art of the lead paragraph. Sentence-level persuasion: syntax, diction, rhythm, anaphora, periodic sentences.

Unit 9 · 5 Weeks

Debate I: Foundations & Formats

Oxford-style debate. British Parliamentary (BP) format. Lincoln-Douglas Value debate. Public Forum. Parliamentary procedure. The anatomy of a constructive speech, rebuttal, and cross-examination.

Unit 10 · 4 Weeks

Research Methods for Argumentation

Academic database research. Evaluating peer-reviewed evidence. Statistics: how to read, cite, and challenge data. Expert testimony. Anecdotal vs. systematic evidence.

Unit 11 · 4 Weeks

Rhetorical Figures & Style

Chiasmus, anaphora, epistrophe, parallelism, antithesis, litotes, irony, zeugma, and 20+ more. Close reading of great orators: Cicero, Burke, Lincoln, Churchill, King, Kennedy, Obama, Thatcher.

Unit 12 · 6 Weeks

Digital Rhetoric & Social Media Persuasion

Memes as rhetoric. Twitter/X, TikTok, and YouTube as argumentative spaces. Virality and emotional contagion. Algorithmic amplification of outrage. Fact-checking in the attention economy.

Year Two: Core Texts

Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein — They Say / I Say (full text)
Strunk & White — The Elements of Style
Joseph M. Williams — Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace
Sam Leith — Words Like Loaded Pistols: Rhetoric from Aristotle to Obama
Philip Bobbitt — The Shield of Achilles (political argumentation, selected chapters)
Primary speeches: Lincoln's Gettysburg Address & Second Inaugural; Churchill's Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat; King's Letter from Birmingham Jail; Obama's 2004 DNC Keynote; Thatcher's 1980 "The Lady's Not for Turning"
Kate Raworth — Doughnut Economics (argumentation in policy writing)

Year Two: Signature Assessments

Advocacy Portfolio & Live Debate

Op-Ed Project: Write a 750-word op-ed on a contested political or social issue for a named publication's readership. Peer workshop and revision cycle required.
Oxford Tutorial Essay: 2,500-word argumentative essay in response to a single-sentence question (e.g., "Is free speech absolute?"). Must engage at least eight scholarly sources and include a genuine counterargument. UK/PPE Standard
Synthesis Essay: AP Language-style synthesis task — read six provided sources and produce a 1,000-word argument integrating at least three. US AP Standard
Live Debate: Students compete in a full British Parliamentary debate before a judged audience. Scored on argument quality, evidence use, rebuttal, and delivery. Mandatory self-reflection memo within 48 hours.
Rhetorical Imitation: Write a 500-word passage in the style of a chosen orator, annotating each rhetorical device used.

Year Three — Advanced Seminar

Power, Language & Society: Political Rhetoric, Law & Critical Theory

Year Three is the PPE capstone level. Students engage with the philosophical foundations of political argument, the rhetoric of law, and the major theoretical frameworks for understanding language in society. This year is designed to prepare students for Oxford/Cambridge interview and first-year tutorials, or for AP Research / IB Extended Essay.

Unit 13 · 5 Weeks

Political Philosophy & Argument

Liberalism, conservatism, socialism, libertarianism as rhetorical frameworks. Rawls' veil of ignorance. Nozick's libertarianism. Burke's conservatism. Mill's utilitarianism as lived argumentation.

Unit 14 · 5 Weeks

Legal Rhetoric & Forensic Argument

The brief, the brief's structure. Stare decisis and precedent as argument. Statutory interpretation. Supreme Court oral argument as debate. IRAC method: Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion.

Unit 15 · 4 Weeks

Critical Discourse Analysis

Foucault on discourse and power. Language as ideology (Fairclough). The politics of naming. Semantic shift and "dog whistle" rhetoric. Postcolonial perspectives on language and authority.

Unit 16 · 4 Weeks

Debate II: Advanced Strategy

Flow notation. Block preparation. Dropped argument theory. The "K" (kritik) in policy debate. Speed, clarity, and adaptation to judge. Tournament strategy and mental preparation.

Unit 17 · 5 Weeks

Comparative Rhetoric: Global Traditions

African oral tradition and Ubuntu philosophy. Confucian rhetoric. Islamic khaṭīb tradition. Indigenous oratory. Decolonising the rhetorical canon — what the Western tradition has excluded.

Unit 18 · 7 Weeks

Independent Thesis Project

A 5,000-word original argument on a self-selected topic in rhetoric, politics, law, or media. Oxford tutorial-style supervision. Defence before a faculty panel.

Year Three: Core Texts

Plato — Gorgias and Phaedrus (on rhetoric and truth)
John Stuart Mill — On Liberty
John Rawls — A Theory of Justice (selections)
Michel Foucault — "The Order of Discourse" (inaugural lecture)
Norman Fairclough — Language and Power (selections)
Bryan Garner — The Winning Brief (legal argument)
Antonin Scalia & Bryan Garner — Making Your Case: The Art of Persuading Judges
Hannah Arendt — The Origins of Totalitarianism (selected chapters on propaganda)
Timothy Snyder — On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century
Roxane Gay — Bad Feminist (contemporary argumentative essay form)
Ta-Nehisi Coates — "The Case for Reparations" (The Atlantic, 2014)

Debate Formats Guide

Competitive Debate: Formats, Rules & Expectations

Format	Origin / Use	Structure	Core Skills Tested
British Parliamentary (BP)	UK Oxford Union, WUDC	4 teams of 2; 8 speeches of 7 min each; Points of Information	Teamwork, extension arguments, rebuttal, Points of Information
Oxford-Style	UK Oxford Union, formal debates	Proposition vs. Opposition; floor speeches; audience vote before and after	Oratory, audience persuasion, wit, presence
Lincoln-Douglas (LD)	US NFL / NSDA	1v1; values-based resolution; 6 speech segments with cross-ex	Value/criterion framework, philosophical reasoning, cross-examination
Public Forum (PF)	US NFL / NSDA	2v2; current events resolutions; crossfire rounds	Current affairs fluency, evidence, crossfire aggression/courtesy
Policy Debate (CX)	US NFL / NSDA	2v2; government policy resolutions; flow-based; speed valued	Evidence depth, flow notation, theory arguments, kritiks
Moot Court	Both Law schools globally	Simulated appellate court; oral arguments before judge panel	Legal reasoning, authority, composure under judicial questioning
Parliamentary (APDA)	US College level	Government vs. Opposition; impromptu prep (15 min); no pre-researched evidence	Quick thinking, wit, case construction under time pressure

The Seven Propaganda Techniques: Identification & Deconstruction

Technique	Definition	Example	Counter-Strategy
Name-Calling	Attaching a negative label to an opponent or idea to bypass rational evaluation	"Radical left," "RINO," "snowflake," "fascist"	Define the term precisely; demand substantive critique
Glittering Generalities	Using virtue words that sound good but lack specific content	"Freedom," "traditional values," "the people," "progress"	Ask: who benefits? What does this concretely mean?
Transfer	Linking a respected symbol (flag, religion, science) to a cause or candidate	Politicians holding Bibles; using doctors in cigarette ads	Separate the symbol from the substance; analyse the actual claim
Testimonial	Having a respected (or despised) person endorse (or oppose) an idea	Celebrity endorsements; experts outside their field	Check credentials; look for conflicts of interest
Plain Folks	Presenting a leader as ordinary and "just like us"	Politicians eating at diners; staged family photos	Examine actual policies, not performed identity
Card Stacking	Presenting only the facts that support one side; strategic omission	Drug ads listing benefits while rushing side-effects; cherry-picked statistics	Ask what is not being said; seek the counter-evidence
Bandwagon	Creating the impression that "everyone" supports this — so you should too	"Nine out of ten dentists…"; crowd size claims; social media manufactured consensus	Popularity ≠ truth; verify the numbers independently

Assessment Framework

Master Rubric: Argumentative Writing & Oral Debate

Written Argument Rubric (AP / A-Level / PPE Standard)

Criterion	5 — Distinction	4 — Merit	3 — Pass	2 — Developing	1 — Insufficient
Thesis & Claim	Sophisticated, nuanced, arguable claim; responds to complexity; takes a defensible risk	Clear, specific claim with some complexity	Identifiable claim but may be obvious or under-qualified	Vague or descriptive rather than argumentative	No discernible claim or merely restates the prompt
Evidence & Reasoning	Varied, high-quality evidence precisely integrated; reasoning is explicit, full, and logical	Solid evidence; reasoning mostly explicit; minor gaps	Some evidence present; reasoning partially developed	Evidence thin or poorly connected; reasoning assumed not shown	No evidence or evidence is fabricated/irrelevant
Counterargument	Engages the strongest version of opposition (steel-mans); rebuttal is decisive and fair	Acknowledges opposition; rebuttal mostly effective	Counterargument present but may be a straw man	Token mention of opposition without engagement	No counterargument; treats issue as one-sided
Rhetorical Awareness	Sophisticated control of tone, diction, and appeal to audience; ethos, pathos, logos all deployed deliberately	Clear awareness of audience and purpose; appeals present	Some audience awareness; appeals inconsistent	Limited awareness of rhetorical context	No apparent awareness of audience or rhetorical situation
Style & Mechanics	Distinctive, mature prose; varied syntax for effect; no significant errors; stylistic choices serve argument	Clear, correct prose; some variety; few errors	Generally clear; errors do not obscure meaning	Frequent errors; style impedes reading	Pervasive errors; writing is unclear
Structure & Organisation	Architecture is purposeful; transitions advance argument; each paragraph earns its place	Clear organisation; mostly effective transitions	Basic structure present; some abrupt transitions	Organisation is hard to follow	No discernible organisation

Oral Debate Performance Rubric

Criterion	Excellent (9–10)	Good (7–8)	Satisfactory (5–6)	Developing (3–4)	Beginning (1–2)
Case Construction	Airtight, original, strategically structured arguments; definitions are precise and tactical	Well-organised case with clear contentions	Basic contentions present; structure sometimes unclear	Contentions vague or poorly ordered	No discernible case structure
Rebuttal	Responds directly and incisively to opponent's strongest points; "drops" nothing significant	Most arguments addressed; rebuttals effective	Some rebuttal present; important arguments ignored	Rebuttal is general or mischaracterises opponent	No substantive rebuttal; runs own case only
Evidence & Research	Strong, current, well-cited evidence; sources are authoritative and varied	Good evidence with proper attribution	Some evidence; attribution inconsistent	Evidence thin or outdated	No evidence or fabricated
Cross-Examination / POI	Questions expose contradictions; answers are crisp and non-concessive without being evasive	Effective use of questioning; answers mostly strong	Cross-ex functional; some lost opportunities	Questions don't advance case; answers rambling	Avoids cross-ex or cannot answer basic questions
Delivery & Presence	Confident, measured, commanding; pace, volume, and eye contact are professional; adapts to room	Clear delivery; mostly engaging; minor issues	Understandable; some filler words or pacing issues	Reads from notes; monotone; hard to hear	Inaudible, incoherent, or unprepared

· · ✦ · ·

Band Descriptors: Oxford/Cambridge PPE Written Work Standard

First Class / Distinction (Oxford Alpha)An exceptional piece of work that makes an original contribution to the question. Argument is sophisticated, nuanced, and intellectually courageous. Evidence is expertly deployed. The strongest possible objections are engaged fairly and refuted persuasively. Prose is clear, elegant, and precise. Demonstrates mastery of the field.

β+

Upper Second / Merit (Oxford Beta Plus)A strong piece demonstrating clear command of the argument. Thesis is well-developed and supported. Counterarguments are addressed. Prose is clear and largely error-free. Shows genuine understanding and some independent thinking. Minor gaps in evidence or reasoning do not undermine the overall case.

Lower Second / Pass (Oxford Beta)A competent piece that addresses the question with some success. Arguments are present but not always fully developed or well-supported. Limited engagement with counterarguments. Prose is generally clear. Demonstrates working knowledge of the topic.

Third Class / Below Pass (Oxford Gamma)The work shows partial understanding but significant deficiencies in argument, evidence, or engagement with the question. Structural or stylistic problems hinder communication. Requires substantial revision to meet the standard.

Fail / InsufficientDoes not meet the minimum standard for submission. The question is not addressed, the argument is absent, or the work is plagiarised. A resubmission conference is required before new work is accepted.

Pathways

Where This Curriculum Leads

⚖

Law

Trial advocacy, appellate argument, contract negotiation, legal writing, and judicial clerkship. This curriculum is the pre-law programme most law schools wish you had taken.

🏛

Politics & Public Service

Campaign communication, policy writing, legislative drafting, party spokesperson work, and electoral strategy. Understanding propaganda is essential for both making and resisting it.

📰

Journalism & Media

Investigative reporting, editorial writing, media criticism, and fact-checking. A rhetorically educated journalist cannot be manipulated — and knows exactly when a source is trying to.

🎙

Public Speaking & Communication

Corporate leadership, TED-style talks, advocacy, nonprofit fundraising, and the growing field of executive communication coaching.

🎓

Academia & Research

Philosophy, sociology, rhetoric studies, political science, communications. This curriculum prepares students for graduate seminars at the world's top universities.

🌐

International Affairs & Diplomacy

Negotiation, treaty writing, UN Model Assembly, and the daily practice of persuading governments — which is, at bottom, applied rhetoric at global scale.

A Note from Reading Sage

On Teaching the Art of Argument

This curriculum was built for students who suspect that words matter — and want to know that they do. Every generation faces a new propaganda landscape: from Goebbels' radio broadcasts to Twitter's engagement algorithms, the tools change while the psychological hooks remain the same. The student who has read Aristotle understands a demagogue's speech better than the demagogue's own speechwriter.

We teach argument not to produce sophists, but to produce citizens — people who cannot be talked into falsehoods, who cannot be silenced by bullying, and who carry within them the ancient, indispensable conviction that the truth, carefully marshalled and courageously spoken, is the strongest force in human affairs.

That is what this curriculum is for.

"The pen is the tongue of the mind."— Miguel de Cervantes

Rhetoric, Debate, Propaganda Analysis, Media Literacy & Persuasive Writing