Abstract
Vocabulary development is essential for English language learners (ELLs) and special education students to succeed academically. However, traditional vocabulary instruction methods often fail to meet the needs of these diverse learners. This paper examines current research on best practices for vocabulary instruction for ELLs and special education students. Effective methods discussed include multimodal instruction, Total Physical Response (TPR), chunking and repetition, learning in context, explicit instruction, and activating prior knowledge. Recommendations are provided for implementing evidence-based vocabulary instruction strategies in the classroom.
Introduction
Vocabulary knowledge is one of the strongest predictors of academic success for all students (Silverman & Crandell, 2010). However, ELLs and special education students often struggle with vocabulary acquisition due to language barriers, learning disabilities, or cognitive delays (August, Artzi, & Barr, 2016). Traditional vocabulary instruction methods, such as having students look up definitions or memorize word lists, are ineffective for these students. ELLs and special education students benefit most from multimodal, contextualized vocabulary instruction that activates prior knowledge and provides multiple exposures to target words (Bryant, Goodwin, Bryant, & Higgins, 2003).
This paper examines current research on effective vocabulary instruction strategies for ELLs and special education students. First, challenges these students face in vocabulary acquisition are reviewed. Next, the theoretical basis for recommended practices is explained. Evidence-based methods for vocabulary instruction are then discussed, including multimodal techniques, TPR, chunking and repetition, learning in context, explicit instruction, and activating prior knowledge. Finally, implications for implementing best practices in the classroom are considered. The research shows that vocabulary instruction for ELLs and special education students should be interactive, contextualized, cognitively engaging, and targeted to each student's language proficiency level.
My preferred vocab teaching method: Vocab Candy
My method for teaching vocabulary using Whole Brain Teaching's Vocab Candy approach involves the following steps:
1. Introduce new vocabulary words to students using Mirror Words. This engages the visual and motor cortex by having teacher and students repeat the word while gesturing.
2. Model the new vocabulary through chunking, stretching, finger spelling, and using the word in a sentence - always paired with a gesture or ASL sign. This multimodal approach taps into different learning modalities.
3. Have students practice vocabulary with a partner using Teach Okay. Students take turns being the "teacher" - gesturing, chunking, and using the new word in a sentence. This peer teaching reinforces the vocabulary.
4. Call out the vocabulary words and have students respond chorally with the gestures/signs. Then have new pairs of students teach the word to each other (Teach Okay). The repetition and peer practice cements the vocabulary learning through verbal, visual, and kinesthetic pathways.
Challenges in Vocabulary Acquisition
ELLs must simultaneously learn conversational English, academic language, and content area vocabulary (August et al., 2016). Most ELLs have limited background knowledge in English, so they cannot rely on context clues to infer meaning of new vocabulary. Additionally, the phonological, morphological, and syntactic differences between English and other languages pose linguistic challenges for ELLs (Silverman & Crandell, 2010).
Special education students also face distinct obstacles to vocabulary growth. Students with learning disabilities in reading or language processing struggle to learn vocabulary through reading and indirect exposure (Jitendra, Edwards, Sacks, & Jacobson, 2004). Intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, and other cognitive or developmental delays can also impair students' language and vocabulary development (Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Kemp-Inman, & Wood, 2014). Even high-functioning special education students with average IQs may fail to infer word meanings from context due to these learning barriers.
Both ELLs and special education students require specialized instruction to make consistent vocabulary gains. Best practices leverage multimodal techniques and research-based strategies to build students' vocabularies.
Theoretical Basis for Recommended Practices
Multimodal language instruction is critical for ELLs' vocabulary growth because it engages their brains through multiple neural pathways simultaneously (Hart & Stebick, 2016). Dual coding theory posits that presenting information verbally and visually enhances learning by activating separate verbal and visual mental systems (Sadoski & Paivio, 2004). Multimodal input, such as saying a word while showing a picture, creates dual verbal-visual codes for the vocabulary that reinforce each other and strengthen memory. Gestures are another effective multimodal vocabulary strategy because they integrate physical motor memory with verbal and visual learning.
ELLs and special education students also benefit from vocabulary instruction rooted in schema theory. Schema theory states that people learn by integrating new information into existing mental frameworks or schemata (Tracey & Morrow, 2012). Students learn and retain vocabulary best when teachers activate relevant prior knowledge and explicitly link new words to familiar concepts. Multimodal input and explicit schema activation both help mitigate the vocabulary challenges faced by ELLs and special education students.
Evidence-Based Vocabulary Instruction Strategies
Multimodal Techniques
Multimodal instruction capitalizes on visual, verbal, gestural, and physical learning modes to enhance vocabulary acquisition. Realia, photographs, illustrations, videos, graphic organizers, hands-on demonstrations, dramatizations, and writing activities all provide visual support for vocabulary learning (Hart & Stebick, 2016). Verbal techniques include teacher modeling, repetition, pronouncing words, student verbalization, discussions, read alouds, and multimedia stories. Kinesthetic and tactile methods involve manipulatives, gestures, acting out words, and arts activities.
Teachers of ELLs and special education students should combine multiple multimodal strategies to teach vocabulary. For example, when introducing the word "oscilate," the teacher could show a video of a pendulum swinging, repeatedly say the word aloud, have students pronounce "oscilate" chorally, act out the motion of the pendulum, have students gesture swinging with their arms, and then have students draw pendulums oscillating. This multimodal approach gives students both verbal and non-verbal input for optimal vocabulary learning.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR is a research-based strategy that teaches vocabulary by having students respond to verbal commands with physical actions (Asher, 1969). For example, when learning action verbs, students act out commands like "jump," "turn," and "clap." TPR links concrete physical experiences with vocabulary, which benefits kinesthetic and tactile learners. It is multimodal because it combines verbal input, visual demonstration, gestures, and physical movement. Studies show that TPR boosts vocabulary acquisition for ELLs and special education students by getting students out of their seats and letting them learn by doing (Asher, 1969, Bryant et al., 2003).
Chunking and Repetition
Chunking breaks down long words and phrases into smaller "chunks" that are easier to remember. Teachers first model saying the full vocabulary word, then repeat it using chunks. For example, for the word "transportation," the teacher says, "trans-por-ta-tion." Students repeat the chunked word several times, exaggerating the pauses between chunks. Chunking paired with repetition aids in retaining the full pronunciation and spelling of vocabulary.
ELLs struggle to distinguish individual words within long phrases in English. Chunking helps parse the speech stream so ELLs hear the component words clearly (Adoniou & Qing, 2015). Students with learning disabilities also benefit from chunking's systematic breakdown of phonological components. Repeating the chunks cements the vocabulary by providing spaced, distributed practice. Teachers should chunk multisyllabic words and long idiomatic phrases to reinforce vocabulary for ELLs and special education students.
Learning Vocabulary in Context
Contextualized vocabulary instruction is more effective than teaching words in isolation (National Reading Panel, 2000). Teachers should introduce new vocabulary within rich, informative contexts like stories, texts, and multimedia. ELLs acquire vocabulary best by encountering words in various meaningful language contexts (Silverman & Crandell, 2010). This improves depth of word knowledge and ability to understand words flexibly across contexts. Special education students also better retain vocabulary learned in context rather than as rote definitions (Jitendra et al., 2004). Providing examples, synonyms, visual supports, and explicit connections to prior knowledge and experiences can further contextualize vocabulary for ELLs and special education students.
Explicit Instruction
Explicitly teaching word meanings is more effective than assuming students will infer definitions from context alone (Jitendra et al., 2004). However, the explicit explanations must connect the new vocabulary to students' background knowledge and extend beyond basic dictionary definitions. For ELLs, teachers should clearly explain how the word is used in context and relate it to cognates in students' first language if applicable (Silverman & Crandell, 2010). Special education students benefit when teachers clearly model using the word, identify attributes and visual referents, and link it with familiar words and concepts (Spooner et al., 2014). Explicit vocabulary instruction is highly structured, responsive to students' prior knowledge, and designed to alleviate misconceptions.
Activating Prior Knowledge
ELLs and special education students learn vocabulary best when teachers activate relevant prior knowledge and experiences to anchor new words. Teachers can use graphic organizers, class discussions, videos, realia demonstrations, and pictorials to tap into students' existing mental schemata before introducing new terminology (Fisher & Frey, 2014). Connecting vocabulary to familiar concepts, knowledge domains, and personal contexts facilitates encoding and retention. Students should also be prompted to explain new vocabulary in their own words to integrate it deeply with prior linguistic and conceptual knowledge. Activating prior knowledge ultimately helps scaffold vocabulary growth for both ELLs and special education students.
Implications for Practice
Key recommendations for implementing research-based vocabulary instruction in the classroom include:
- Use multimodal strategies, such as visual aids, gestures, dramatization, writing, and speaking, when introducing new vocabulary.
- Incorporate interactive techniques like TPR to actively engage students and leverage kinesthetic intelligence.
- Chunk multisyllabic words into smaller phonological units and provide spaced repetition.
- Embed vocabulary in meaningful, informative language contexts like stories, multimedia, and class discussions.
- Provide explicit explanations of word meanings connected to students' prior knowledge.
- Activate relevant schemata before introducing new vocabulary by linking it
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