- What is spaced practice?- What is distributed practice?- What is the spacing effect?- How does spreading out practice over time improve learning?- What is interleaving in education?- How does interleaving practice improve learning?- What is mastery learning?- How does mastery learning work?- What is the difference between mastery learning and standard learning?- How do you implement mastery learning in the classroom?- What are the benefits of mastery learning?- How does interleaved practice related to mastery learning?- What are the best practice strategies for long-term learning?- How can I improve student retention of key concepts over time?- What does the research say about practice for mastery?- How can technology assist with spaced practice and mastery learning?- How can teachers encourage more deliberate practice in schools?
Abstract
In today's high-stakes testing environment, schools often focus on cramming for exams rather than deliberate practice for deep learning and mastery. However, the science shows that spaced practice over time leads to better long-term retention and skill development compared to massed "cramming" of material. This article explores the evidence behind spaced practice, retrieval practice, interleaving, and other research-based learning techniques that lead to mastery. It argues for bringing back the lost art of practicing deliberately in schools to promote authentic, lasting learning rather than short-term test performance. Implementing mastery learning systems where students practice to a high standard before moving on is proposed.
Introduction
The sound of students practicing their instruments often flowed through the halls when I attended elementary school in the 1970s and 80s. Whether piano, violin, trumpet or recorder, practicing was an integral part of our music education. Fast forward to today and opportunities for practice during school have dwindled for many subjects beyond just music. With standardized testing consuming more classroom time, many schools have doubled down on lecturing, worksheets and other massed learning techniques aimed at short-term memorization rather than long-term mastery (Boaler, 2019). This article explores the science behind effective practice strategies such as distributed (or spaced) practice, retrieval practice, interleaving, and feedback-driven mastery learning. It argues for bringing back in-school practice across subjects to promote authentic skill development and lasting learning.
The Power of Distributed Practice
One of the most well-established principles in cognitive science is the spacing effect - that distributing learning over time leads to better long-term retention compared to massing learning into single sessions (Cepeda et al, 2006). Practicing material over spaced intervals allows time for forgetting and relearning, strengthening memory. Research shows large positive effects of spaced practice on learning outcomes from children to adults across skill domains like math, science and foreign language (Carpenter et al, 2012). For example, one study found that medical residents retained information far better one year later if they learned the material across several weeks versus all in one weekend (Kerfoot et al, 2007).
Yet schools often emphasize cramming material right before exams. Large-scale surveys suggest students spend more time studying and feel more confident right before a test despite no learning benefits (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012). Packing more material closer to the test may boost short-term performance but at the expense of long-term learning. Implementing regular distributed practice of key concepts would better promote enduring mastery.
The Power of Retrieval Practice
Related to spacing is the idea of retrieval or test-enhanced learning. Practicing bringing information to mind from memory improves encoding and leads to better retention than simply restudying material (Rowland, 2014). For example, students who take practice tests after learning content perform better on final tests than students who spend the same time restudying (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). This holds true even when students do poorly on the practice tests. The effort of retrieving knowledge strengthens connections and corrects misunderstandings.
Despite the benefits, students report preferring restudying to testing themselves and often skip practice tests (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012). Teachers can encourage more retrieval practice through flashcards, practice problems, reflection questions and other engaging activities that require generating responses. Software programs that incorporate spaced quizzing of material can also help structure retrieval practice. Regular low-stakes testing promotes long-term retention critical for mastery.
The Power of Interleaving
When practicing specific skills, interleaving the practice of those skills leads to better learning compared to blocking the skills and practicing them separately (Rohrer et al, 2020). For example, interleaving different types of math problems during practice improves ability to discriminate between problem types and select the correct solution method compared to practicing one problem type at a time.
Yet students often block practice by topic or problem type. While blocking may improve short-term focused performance, it can impair discrimination between concepts crucial for flexible transfer of skills. Mixing up practice problems requires mental flexibility and connections between ideas that foster deeper learning. Teachers should encourage interleaved practice to maintain the challenge needed for mastery.
The Feedback-Driven Mastery Cycle
Deliberate practice aimed at a mastery learning goal of high achievement for all students requires formative feedback (Block & Burns, 1976). Getting feedback clarifies misunderstandings and cements correct knowledge. Researchers propose a mastery cycle driven by feedback: 1) Establish a clear mastery goal for a skill 2) Provide instruction on the skill 3) Assess student learning and provide feedback 4) Based on feedback, tailor remediation and re-teaching as needed 5) Re-assess to determine if students have achieved mastery (Guskey, 1997). The cycle repeats until mastery is reached.
Technology can supplement teacher feedback by providing personalized instruction and practice based on student needs. But the human element remains critical, especially for complex skills. One-on-one tutoring produces large learning gains compared to conventional instruction, in part due to tailored explanations and feedback (Bloom, 1984). While not always feasible, schools should work towards more individualized feedback and scaffolding to shape practice deliberately.
The Motivational Pull of Mastery Goals
Focusing practice on mastery of skills and concepts rather than performance goals aimed at competition or external recognition also improves motivation and efficacy (Dweck, 1986). Students oriented towards developing competence are more likely to persist through challenges, use effective learning strategies and display enthusiasm for the material compared to students who prioritize demonstrating normative ability or avoiding failure.
Teachers can encourage mastery orientation by valuing effort, allowing revision to achieve mastery, praising progress in skills and framing education as a journey of growth. Emphasizing mastery over ranking students instills motivation grounded in the inherent satisfaction of lifelong learning over temporary external markers of success.
Conclusion
The relentless focus on standardized test performance has squeezed out time for meaningful practice and led to short-term fixes like cramming. But the research is clear - distributing practice over time, mixing problems and concepts, and retrieving knowledge improve retention and skill development critical for authentic mastery. Schools should bring back integrated practice across subjects with an eye towards long-term learning goals. Technology can assist, but human feedback remains irreplaceable, especially for complex skills. Implementing mastery learning systems where students receive the time and support to practice deliberately to high levels before moving on would represent a major shift towards prioritizing deep learning over test scores. Reviving the lost art of practice with an emphasis on effort over aptitude can help schools fulfill their mission of instilling knowledge and skills that endure.
References
Bloom, B.S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13, 4-16.
Boaler, J. (2019). Limitless mind: Learn, lead, and live without barriers. HarperCollins.
Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 369–378.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 354–380.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American psychologist, 41(10), 1040.
Guskey, T. R. (1997). Implementing mastery learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J. (2012). Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 19(1), 126-134.
Kerfoot, B. P., DeWolf, W. C., Masser, B. A., Church, P. A., & Federman, D. D. (2007). Spaced education improves the retention of clinical knowledge by medical students: a randomised controlled trial. Medical education, 41(1), 23-31.
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological science, 17(3), 249-255.
Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., & Stershic, S. (2015). Interleaved practice improves mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 900.
Rowland, C. A. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1432.
In today's high-stakes testing environment, schools often focus on cramming for exams rather than deliberate practice for deep learning and mastery. However, the science shows that spaced practice over time leads to better long-term retention and skill development compared to massed "cramming" of material. This article explores the evidence behind spaced practice, retrieval practice, interleaving, and other research-based learning techniques that lead to mastery. It argues for bringing back the lost art of practicing deliberately in schools to promote authentic, lasting learning rather than short-term test performance. Implementing mastery learning systems where students practice to a high standard before moving on is proposed.
Introduction
The sound of students practicing their instruments often flowed through the halls when I attended elementary school in the 1970s and 80s. Whether piano, violin, trumpet or recorder, practicing was an integral part of our music education. Fast forward to today and opportunities for practice during school have dwindled for many subjects beyond just music. With standardized testing consuming more classroom time, many schools have doubled down on lecturing, worksheets and other massed learning techniques aimed at short-term memorization rather than long-term mastery (Boaler, 2019). This article explores the science behind effective practice strategies such as distributed (or spaced) practice, retrieval practice, interleaving, and feedback-driven mastery learning. It argues for bringing back in-school practice across subjects to promote authentic skill development and lasting learning.
The Power of Distributed Practice
One of the most well-established principles in cognitive science is the spacing effect - that distributing learning over time leads to better long-term retention compared to massing learning into single sessions (Cepeda et al, 2006). Practicing material over spaced intervals allows time for forgetting and relearning, strengthening memory. Research shows large positive effects of spaced practice on learning outcomes from children to adults across skill domains like math, science and foreign language (Carpenter et al, 2012). For example, one study found that medical residents retained information far better one year later if they learned the material across several weeks versus all in one weekend (Kerfoot et al, 2007).
Yet schools often emphasize cramming material right before exams. Large-scale surveys suggest students spend more time studying and feel more confident right before a test despite no learning benefits (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012). Packing more material closer to the test may boost short-term performance but at the expense of long-term learning. Implementing regular distributed practice of key concepts would better promote enduring mastery.
The Power of Retrieval Practice
Related to spacing is the idea of retrieval or test-enhanced learning. Practicing bringing information to mind from memory improves encoding and leads to better retention than simply restudying material (Rowland, 2014). For example, students who take practice tests after learning content perform better on final tests than students who spend the same time restudying (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). This holds true even when students do poorly on the practice tests. The effort of retrieving knowledge strengthens connections and corrects misunderstandings.
Despite the benefits, students report preferring restudying to testing themselves and often skip practice tests (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012). Teachers can encourage more retrieval practice through flashcards, practice problems, reflection questions and other engaging activities that require generating responses. Software programs that incorporate spaced quizzing of material can also help structure retrieval practice. Regular low-stakes testing promotes long-term retention critical for mastery.
The Power of Interleaving
When practicing specific skills, interleaving the practice of those skills leads to better learning compared to blocking the skills and practicing them separately (Rohrer et al, 2020). For example, interleaving different types of math problems during practice improves ability to discriminate between problem types and select the correct solution method compared to practicing one problem type at a time.
Yet students often block practice by topic or problem type. While blocking may improve short-term focused performance, it can impair discrimination between concepts crucial for flexible transfer of skills. Mixing up practice problems requires mental flexibility and connections between ideas that foster deeper learning. Teachers should encourage interleaved practice to maintain the challenge needed for mastery.
The Feedback-Driven Mastery Cycle
Deliberate practice aimed at a mastery learning goal of high achievement for all students requires formative feedback (Block & Burns, 1976). Getting feedback clarifies misunderstandings and cements correct knowledge. Researchers propose a mastery cycle driven by feedback: 1) Establish a clear mastery goal for a skill 2) Provide instruction on the skill 3) Assess student learning and provide feedback 4) Based on feedback, tailor remediation and re-teaching as needed 5) Re-assess to determine if students have achieved mastery (Guskey, 1997). The cycle repeats until mastery is reached.
Technology can supplement teacher feedback by providing personalized instruction and practice based on student needs. But the human element remains critical, especially for complex skills. One-on-one tutoring produces large learning gains compared to conventional instruction, in part due to tailored explanations and feedback (Bloom, 1984). While not always feasible, schools should work towards more individualized feedback and scaffolding to shape practice deliberately.
The Motivational Pull of Mastery Goals
Focusing practice on mastery of skills and concepts rather than performance goals aimed at competition or external recognition also improves motivation and efficacy (Dweck, 1986). Students oriented towards developing competence are more likely to persist through challenges, use effective learning strategies and display enthusiasm for the material compared to students who prioritize demonstrating normative ability or avoiding failure.
Teachers can encourage mastery orientation by valuing effort, allowing revision to achieve mastery, praising progress in skills and framing education as a journey of growth. Emphasizing mastery over ranking students instills motivation grounded in the inherent satisfaction of lifelong learning over temporary external markers of success.
Conclusion
The relentless focus on standardized test performance has squeezed out time for meaningful practice and led to short-term fixes like cramming. But the research is clear - distributing practice over time, mixing problems and concepts, and retrieving knowledge improve retention and skill development critical for authentic mastery. Schools should bring back integrated practice across subjects with an eye towards long-term learning goals. Technology can assist, but human feedback remains irreplaceable, especially for complex skills. Implementing mastery learning systems where students receive the time and support to practice deliberately to high levels before moving on would represent a major shift towards prioritizing deep learning over test scores. Reviving the lost art of practice with an emphasis on effort over aptitude can help schools fulfill their mission of instilling knowledge and skills that endure.
References
Bloom, B.S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13, 4-16.
Boaler, J. (2019). Limitless mind: Learn, lead, and live without barriers. HarperCollins.
Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 369–378.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 354–380.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American psychologist, 41(10), 1040.
Guskey, T. R. (1997). Implementing mastery learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J. (2012). Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 19(1), 126-134.
Kerfoot, B. P., DeWolf, W. C., Masser, B. A., Church, P. A., & Federman, D. D. (2007). Spaced education improves the retention of clinical knowledge by medical students: a randomised controlled trial. Medical education, 41(1), 23-31.
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological science, 17(3), 249-255.
Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., & Stershic, S. (2015). Interleaved practice improves mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 900.
Rowland, C. A. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1432.
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